Unit 1 Vocab Flashcards
the transmission of traits from parents to their offspring
hereditary
every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
environment
the controversy over the relative importance of contributions of genes or experience
nature-nurture issue
a tendency for certain traits to be inherited, including physical and mental conditions and disorders
genetic predisposition
the approach to psychology that focuses on the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection
evolutionary perspective
the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
natural selection
a social and political philosophy, based loosely on Charles Darwin’s evolutionary theory and Francis Galton’s research on hereditary genius, that seeks to eradicate genetic defects and improve the genetic makeup of populations through selective human breeding
euenics
research utilizing twins. The purpose of such research is usually to assess the relative contributions of heredity and environment to some attribute
twin study
research conducted among siblings, parents, or children to assess evidence for genetic links for characteristics or outcomes, often related to health or disease. The extent to which performance on a given measure varies as a function of genetic similarity is used as an indication of the heritability of that measure
family study
a research design that investigates the relationships among genetic and environmental factors in the development of personality, behavior, or disorder by comparing the similarities of biological parent–child pairs with those of adoptive parent–child pairs
adoption studies
the brain and spinal cord. the entire complex of neurons, axons, and supporting tissue that constitute the brain and spinal cord
central nervous system
the nerves, made up of sensory and motor neurons, that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body
peripheral nervous system
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart)
autonomic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles
somatic Nervous system
the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
nervous system
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. the change in electric potential that propagates along the axon of a neuron during the transmission of a nerve impulse or the contraction of a muscle
action potential
a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing
all-or-nothing
a reduction in the electric potential across the plasma membrane of a cell, especially a neuron, such that the inner surface of the membrane becomes less negative in relation to the outer surface. If the stimulus intensity exceeds the excitatory threshold of the neuron, an action potential is created and a nerve impulse propagated
depolarization
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
glial cells
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
interneurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
motor neurons
a disease of the central nervous system characterized by scarring of the protective myelin sheath of nerves, which damages and destroys the sheath and the underlying nerve, disrupting neural transmission
Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
an autoimmune disorder in which the body produces antibodies against acetylcholine receptors, causing faulty transmission of nerve impulses at neuromuscular junctions
Myasthenia Gravis
the process by which a signal or other activity in a neuron is transferred to an adjacent neuron or other cell
neural transmission
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
neuron
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
reflex
a neural circuit that is involved in a reflex. In its simplest form, it consists of an afferent, or sensory, neuron that conducts nerve impulses from a receptor to the spinal cord, where it connects directly or via an interneuron to an efferent motor neuron that carries the impulses to an effector, that is, a muscle or gland
reflex arc
a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired
refractory period
the electric potential across the plasma membrane of a neuron when it is in the non excited, or resting, state
resting potential
a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron
reuptake
a substance that interferes with the reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the presynaptic neurons that released them. For example, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are thought to block the reabsorption of serotonin, thereby increasing the amount of serotonin available to bind to postsynaptic receptors
reuptake inhibitor
neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
sensory neurons
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. the minimum stimulus intensity that triggers an action potential in a neuron
threshhold
the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
dendrites
the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands
axon
a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next
myelin sheath
the space between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
synape
bundled axons that form neural “cables” connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
nerves
a major, predominantly excitatory but also inhibitory, neurotransmitter both in the central nervous system, where it plays an important role in memory formation and learning and is implicated in Alzheimer’s disease, and in the peripheral nervous system, where it mediates skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle contraction and is implicated in myasthenia gravis and other movement disorders.
acetylene
As a hormone, it is secreted in large amounts when an individual is stimulated by fear, anxiety, or a similar stress-related reaction. As a neurotransmitter, it increases the heart rate and force of heart contractions, relaxes bronchial and intestinal smooth muscle, and produces varying effects on blood pressure. Also called epinephrine.
adrenaline
natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
endorphins
the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
endocrine system
plays a role as a “reward center” and in many body functions, including memory, movement, motivation, mood, attention and more. High levels are associated with schizophrenia and addiction, and low levels are associated with Parkinson’s disease and ADHD.
dopamine
excitatory and inhibitory chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.
neurotransmitters
a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian nervous system.
GABA
secreted by endocrine cells in the stomach stimulating appetite and the release of growth hormone.
ghreline
the predominant excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. Pays a critical role in cognitive, motor, and sensory functions.
glutamate
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.
horemones
a hormone that communicates to the brain the amount of body fat stored and may help to regulate food intake.
leptin
a hormone implicated in the initiation of sleep and in the regulation of the sleep–wake cycle.
melatonin
a neurotransmitter that increases alertness, arousal, and attention.
norephedrine
a hormone when operating during times of low stress, physiologically rewards, with feelings of well-being, those who maintain good social bonds.
oxytocin
a neurotransmitter connected with mood, appetite, sleep. Low levels play a role in depression and anxiety.
serotonin
a neuropeptide that functions as a neurotransmitter in both peripheral and central nervous systems. Plays a role in the modulation of pain.
substance p
a state of psychological and/or physical dependence on the use of drugs or other substances, such as alcohol, or on activities or behaviors.
Addiction
a molecule that by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response
agonst
a drug or other chemical agent that inhibits the action of another substance. a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response.
antagonist
use of alcohol marked my tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue despite problematic use and consequences
alcoholism
a CNS stimulant found in coffee, tea, cola, cocoa, chocolate, and certain prescribed and over-the-counter medications. Its effects include rapid breathing, increased pulse rate and blood pressure, and diminished fatigue.
caffeine
a drug, obtained from leaves of the coca shrub, that stimulates the central nervous system with the effects of reducing fatigue and increasing well-being, followed by a period of depression as the initial effects diminish. The drug acts by blocking the reuptake of the neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine. The psychoactive properties of the coca plant were recognized by the Peruvian Incas before 4000 bce, and in the 1880s the possible therapeutic uses of cocaine were investigated.
cocaine
any of a group of drugs that, at low doses, depress the inhibitory centers of the brain. At somewhat higher doses, they depress other neural functions, slow reaction times, and lower respiration and heart rate. At still higher doses, they can induce unconsciousness, coma, and death.
depressants
a substance capable of producing a sensory effect (visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, or tactile) in the absence of an actual stimulus. Because they produce alterations in perception, cognition, and mood, hallucinogens are also called psychedelic drugs or psychedelics (from the Greek, meaning “mind-manifesting”).
hallucionogens
a highly addictive opioid that is a synthetic analog of morphine and three times more potent. In many countries, including Great Britain and Canada, it is used clinically for pain management, but it is not legally available in the United States due to concerns about its potential for abuse.
heroine
effects include a sense of euphoria or well-being, easy laughter, perceptual distortions, impairment of concentration and short-term memory, and craving for food. Adverse effects of anxiety or panic are not uncommon, and hallucinations may occur with high doses.
maraguana
any of a group of compounds that include the naturally occurring opiates (e.g., morphine) and their semisynthetic derivatives (e.g., heroin); the synthetic opioid agonists (e.g., meperidine, methadone), opioid antagonists (e.g., naloxone, naltrexone). Used clinically as pain relievers, anesthetics, cough suppressants, and antidiarrheal drugs, and many are subject to abuse and dependence.
opioids
any drug that has significant effects on psychological processes, such as thinking, perception, and emotion.
psychoactive drugs
any of a group of drugs that, at low to moderate doses, heighten wakefulness and alertness, diminish fatigue, and provoke feelings of energy and well-being. At higher doses, the more powerful stimulants can produce agitation, panicked excitement, hallucinations, and paranoia. Examples: cocaine, meth, caffeine, nicotine, coca leaves, betel nut, guarana, khat.
stimulants
a condition, resulting from persistent use of a drug, characterized by a markedly diminished effect with regular use of the same dose of the drug or by a need to increase the dose markedly over time to achieve the same desired effect.
tolerance
discomfort and distress that develops after cessation of prolonged, heavy consumption of a
withdrawal
the part of the brain that connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. It includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata and is involved in the autonomic control of salivation, respiration, heartbeat, digestion, and other so called vegetative functions.
brainstem
the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance
celebrellum
the base of the brainstem; controls breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure
Medulla oblongata
