Unit 3 Vocab Flashcards
research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period
longitudinal study
a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another.
cross sectional study
how our genetic inheritance interacts with our experiences and upbringing
nature and nurture
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
developmental psychology
a general perspective emphasizing (a) that human development is a lifelong process of change from conception to death; (b) that developmental change is multidimensional and multidirectional, involving both growth and decline in one’s performance (e.g., of cognitive tasks); and (c) that there is plasticity in human behavior throughout the entire lifespan
lifespan development
the degree to which a person maintains the same rank order with respect to a particular characteristic over time in comparison with peers
stability and change
any adverse influence on fetal development. Prenatal influences include radiation effects, maternal diseases (e.g., rubella, toxoplasmosis) and behavior (e.g., alcohol or drug use, excessive smoking), blood incompatibility, nutritional deficiency, and stress
prenatal influence
an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development.an early stage in life when an organism is especially open to specific learning, emotional, or socializing experiences that occur as part of normal development and will not recur at a later stage. For example, the first 3 days of life are thought to constitute a critical period for imprinting in ducks, and there may be a critical period for language acquisition in human infants
critical period
the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life
imprinting
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
maturation
the first menstrual period
menarche
a male’s first ejaculation of semen
spermarche
the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines
menopause
the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
puberty
non-reproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair
secondary sex characteristics
the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
primary sex characteristics
agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
teratogens
the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
adolescence
describing activities or skills that require coordination of small muscles to control small, precise movements, particularly in the hands and face
fine motor coordination
describing activities or skills that use large muscles to move the trunk or limbs and control posture to maintain balance
gross motor coordination
any period of accelerated physical development, especially the pubescent growth spurt
growth spurt
any of a number of automatic, unlearned, relatively fixed responses to stimuli that do not require conscious effort and that often involve a faster response than might be possible if a conscious evaluation of the input were required
reflexes
an automatic, unlearned response of a newborn to a gentle stimulus (e.g., the touch of a finger) applied to the corner of the mouth or to the cheek, in which the infant turns their head and makes sucking motions
rooting reflex
any aspect of physical, cognitive, social, or emotional development that is significant and predictable, such that children throughout the world develop this ability, characteristic, or behavior at about the same time. Developmental milestones include presence of first teeth and language acquisition
developmental milestones
an apparatus to investigate the development of depth perception in nonverbal human infants and in nonhuman animals, and in particular, whether depth perception is an innate ability or learned through visuomotor experience
visual cliff
a stage in development when an organism can most rapidly acquire a particular skill or characteristic. For example, in humans, the 1st year of life is considered significant for the development of a secure attachment bond. Lack of appropriate growth-dependent experiences during a sensitive period does not permanently and irreversibly affect development, as it would during a critical period, but rather makes the acquisition process outside the period more difficult
sensitive periods
in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female. the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for different genders
gender
the characteristics and traits of biological sex. Sex refers especially to physical and biological traits, whereas gender refers especially to social or cultural traits, although the distinction between the two terms is not regularly observed
sex
a person’s sexual and emotional attraction to another person and the behavior and/or social affiliation that may result from this attraction
sexual orientation
adapting our current understandings to incorporate new information
accomodation
interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing schemas
assimilation
the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
conservation
in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically
concrete operational
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
crystalized intelligence
in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view
egocentrism
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.
fluid intelligence
in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
formal operational
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
object permanence
in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
preoperational stage
in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
sensorimotor stage
the process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable.
scaffolding
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
schema
people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict
theory of mind
the place between what a child can and can’t do, so that caregivers can use scaffolding to help them learn
zone of proximal development
thinking characterized by the use of general ideas or concepts
abstract thinking
the belief that natural phenomena or inanimate objects are alive or possess lifelike characteristics, such as intentions, desires, and feelings
animism
a generalized, pervasive deterioration of memory and at least one other cognitive function, such as language and an executive function, due to a variety of causes.The age of onset varies with the cause but is usually late in life
dementia
the abstract logical reasoning that, according to the Piagetian theory of cognitive development, emerges in early adolescence and marks the formal operational stage. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning is distinguished by the capacity for abstract thinking and hypothesis testing, which frees the adolescent from total reliance on concrete thinking and immediate perception. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
hypothetical thinking
In the preoperational stage, children use these to represent words, images, and ideas. Involved in pretend play
mental symbols
fantasy or make-believe play that includes an as-if orientation to actions, objects, and peers
pretend play
in Piagetian theory, a mental operation that reverses a sequence of events or restores a changed state of affairs to the original condition
reversibility
the stage of development when the genital organs reach maturity and secondary sex characteristics begin to appear, signaling the start of adolescence
puberty
beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
babbling
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
grammar
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
language
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word
morphemes
the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
one word stage
application of a principle of regular change to a word that changes irregularly. Ex: Bringed instead of brought
overgeneralization
in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
phonemes
the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning
semantics
the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language
syntax
when a child moves beyond the two-word, relational stage of language development and begins to express longer, three-word sentences using a finite set of grammatical categories, such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives
telegraphic speech
vowel-like sounds produced by young infants when they are seemingly happy and contented
cooing
an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.
attachment
a parenting style that imposes strict rules and expects total obedience.
authoritarian parenting
parenting style that provides limits and love; children of this kind of parent are the most well-adjusted
authoritative parenting
type of thought common to adolescents in which they believe that other people are just as concerned about their own thoughts and characteristics as they are.
imaginary audience
parenting style that has plenty of emotional care but little to no structure or rules
permissive parenting
type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm
personal fable
the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
social clock
a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
temperament
an evolving body of theory and research concerned with the processes and conditions that govern the course of human development in the actual environments in which human beings live
ecological systems
in ecological systems theory, changes and continuities occurring over time that influence an individual’s development. These influences include normative life transitions (e.g., school entry, marriage, retirement), nonnormative life transitions (e.g., divorce, winning the lottery, relocation), and the cumulative effects of the entire sequence of transitions over the life course.
chronosystem
in ecological systems theory, those societal structures that function largely independently of the individual but nevertheless affect the immediate context within which they develop. They include the government, the legal system, and the media
exosystem
in ecological systems theory, the level of environmental influence that is most distal to the developing individual and that affects all other systems. It includes the values, traditions, and sociocultural characteristics of the larger society.
macrosystem
in ecological systems theory, the groups and institutions outside the home (e.g., day care, school, a child’s peer group) that influence the child’s development and interact with aspects of the microsystem (e.g., relations in the home)
mesosystem
in ecological systems theory, the groups that have direct contact with the individual
microsystem
the characteristic way people relate to others in the context of intimate relationships, which is heavily influenced by self-worth and interpersonal trust. Theoretically, the degree of attachment security in adults is related directly to how well they bonded to others as children
attachment styles
in the Strange Situation, the positive parent–child relationship, in which the child displays confidence when the parent is present, shows mild distress when the parent leaves, and quickly reestablishes contact when the parent returns; an adult attachment style characterized by a view of oneself as worthy of love.
secure attachment
in the Strange Situation, one of several patterns of a generally negative parent–child relationship in which the child fails to display confidence when the parent is present
insecure attachment
a form of insecure attachment in which infants do not seek proximity to their parent after separation. Instead, the infant does not appear distressed by the separation and avoids the returning parent
avoidant attachment
a form of insecure attachment in which infants show no coherent or consistent behavior during separation from and reunion with their parents
disorganized attachment
a form of insecure attachment in which infants show a combination of positive and negative responses toward a parent. After separation, for example, infants may simultaneously seek and resist close contact with the returning parent; an adult interpersonal style characterized by worry that a partner will break off a relationship or by hesitancy in forming deeply committed relationships despite a desire to do so
anxious attachment
children playing independently in the same area, with the same materials, but with minimal engagement with one another
parallel play
also known as “symbolic play” because it involves the use of symbols. When we use symbols, we use something to stand for something else. In the case of pretend play, children may use one object to stand for another, such as pretending a spoon is a hairbrush, or a tablecloth is a cape
pretend play
Adolescent self-focus with imaginary audience and personal fable
egocentrism
the normal apprehension experienced by a young child when away (or facing the prospect of being away) from the person or people to whom they are attached (particularly parents). Separation anxiety is most active between 6 and 10 months of age
separation anxiety
instances where one person affects, or is affected by, one other or multiple others who are similar in age
peer influence
for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood
emerging adulthood
potentially traumatic events that occur in childhood (0-17 years). For example:experiencing violence, abuse, or neglect, witnessing violence in the home or community
adverse childhood experiences
when adolescents neither explore nor commit to any identities, characterized by the lack of both identity exploration and commitment.
identity diffusion
when an individual commits to an identity without exploring options
foreclosure
state in which adolescents are actively exploring options but have not yet made commitments
identity moratorium
individuals who have explored different options, discovered their purpose, and have made identity commitments are in this state
identity achievement
an expansion of identity versus role confusion, the fifth stage in Erik Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development. The model posits four possible identity statuses that an individual might assume, particularly during adolescence, each characterized by a different level of exploration of and commitment to a specific identity
identity status model
the fifth of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, also known as identity versus role confusion, marked by an identity crisis that occurs during adolescence. During this stage, the individual may experience a psychosocial moratorium, a period of time that permits experimentation with social roles
identity vs role confusion
the first of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, between birth and 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant either comes to view other people and themself as trustworthy or comes to develop a fundamental distrust of their environment
trust vs mistrust
the second of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, between the ages of 1½ and 3 years. During this stage, children acquire a degree of self-reliance and self-confidence if allowed to develop at their own pace but may begin to doubt their ability to control themselves and their world if parents are overly critical, overprotective, or inconsistent.
autonomy vs shame and doubt
the third of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, which occurs during the child’s 3rd through 5th years. In planning, launching, and initiating fantasy, play, and other activity, the child learns to believe in their ability to successfully pursue goals. However, if these pursuits often fail or are criticized, the child may develop instead a feeling of self-doubt and guilt
initiative vs guilt
the sixth of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, which extends from late adolescence through courtship and early family life to early middle age. During this period, individuals must learn to share and care without losing themselves; if they fail, they will feel alone and isolated
intimacy vs isolation
the fourth of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, occurring from ages 6 to 11 years, during which the child learns to be productive and to accept evaluation of their efforts or becomes discouraged and feels inferior or incompetent
industry vs inferiority
the eighth and final stage of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, which occurs during old age. In this stage, the individual reflects on the life they have lived and may develop either integrity—a sense of satisfaction in having lived a good life and the ability to approach death with equanimity—or despair—a feeling of bitterness about opportunities missed and time wasted, and a dread of approaching death
integrity vs despair
the seventh stage of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development. Generativity is the positive goal of middle adulthood, interpreted in terms not only of procreation but also of creativity and fulfilling one’s full parental and social responsibilities toward the next generation, in contrast to a narrow interest in the self, or self-absorption
generativity vs stagnation
the theory proposed by Erik Erikson that ego identity is gradually achieved by facing goals and challenges during eight stages of development across the lifespan
stage theory of development
an individual’s sense of self defined by (a) a set of physical, psychological, and interpersonal characteristics that is not wholly shared with any other person and (b) a range of affiliations (e.g., ethnicity) and social roles. Identity involves a sense of continuity, or the feeling that one is the same person today that one was yesterday or last year (despite physical or other changes).
identity
a person’s psychological sense of self in relation to their gender. Many people describe gender identity as a deeply felt, inherent sense of being a boy, a man, or male; a girl, a woman, or female; or a nonbinary gender (e.g., genderqueer, gender-neutral, agender, gender-fluid, transgender) that may or may not correspond to a person’s sex assigned at birth, presumed gender based on sex assignment, or primary or secondary sex characteristics
gender identity
an individual’s sense of being defined, in part, by membership in a particular racial group. The strength of this sense depends on the extent to which an individual has processed and internalized the psychological, sociopolitical, cultural, and other contextual factors related to membership in the group. Given the socially constructed nature of racial categories, racial identifications can change over time and in different contexts
racial identity
an individual’s sense of being a person who is defined, in part, by membership in a specific ethnic group. This sense is usually considered to be a complex construct involving shared social, cultural, linguistic, religious, and often racial factors
ethnic identity
the conscious awareness of oneself as a worker
occupational identity
sense of group membership to a religion and the importance of this group membership as it pertains to one’s self-concept, religious group membership regardless of religious activity or participation
religious identity
an individual’s identity is influenced by the people around them and the environment in which they live and were raised
family identity
a person’s sexual and emotional attraction to another person and the behavior and/or social affiliation that may result from this attraction
sexual orientation
a mental representation of what one could become, cognitive manifestations of enduring goals, aspirations, fears, and threats that provide plans and strategies for the future. An individual is free to create any variety of selves, yet the pool of possible selves derives from the categories made salient by the individual’s particular sociocultural and historical context and from the models, images, and symbols provided by the media and by the individual’s immediate social experiences
possible selves
in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
acquisition
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
associative learning
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)
behavioral perspective
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
classical conditioning
in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth
unconditioned response
the association of the taste of a food or fluid with an aversive stimulus (usually gastrointestinal discomfort or illness), leading to a very rapid and long-lasting aversion to, or at the least a decreased preference for, that particular taste
taste aversion
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response
unconditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
conditioned response
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response
conditioned stimulus
diminishing of response when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS).
extinction
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner
habituation
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
spontaneous recovery
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
stimulus discrimination
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
stimulus generalization
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus
higher order conditioning
the biological predisposition to quickly learn associations between stimuli, responses, and reinforcers that can be explained by their fit with genetic traits that evolved to enhance the chances of a species’ survival
biological preparedness
a connection or relationship between two items (e.g., ideas, events, feelings) with the result that experiencing the first item activates a representation of the second. Associations are fundamental to learning theory and behaviorism
association
an experimental procedure in which a nonhuman animal, already conditioned to respond to a stimulus in a particular way, is trained to produce a different response to the same stimulus that is incompatible with the original response. This same principle underlies many of the techniques used in behavior therapy to eliminate unwanted behavior in people
counterconditioning
the mastery of a skill after the first training experience
one trial learning
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
continuous reinforcement
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
fixed interval
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
fixed ratio
Although an animal can be trained in certain behaviors, it is likely to return to its biological predisposition
instinctive drift
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
law of effect
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
learned helplessness
increasing behaviors by presenting pleasant or appetitive stimuli, such as food
positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing unpleasant or aversive stimuli, such as shock. (Note: not the same as punishment.)
negative reinforcement
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
operant conditioning
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
partial reinforcement
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
primary reinforcers
an event that decreases the behavior that it follows
punishment
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
reinforcement
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
variable interval
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable times
variable ratio
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer
secondary reinforcer
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
shaping
in conditioning, the reinforcement of only selected behavior
reinforcement discrimination
occurs in operant conditioning when a learned behavior is applied to another similar context
reinforcement generalization
in conditioning, a rule that determines which instances of a response will be reinforced
reinforcement schedule
occurs when responses start slowly but then increase in speed as the time that reinforcement is used nears. Scalloped response patterns occur in fixed-interval schedules in which reinforcements are available at a fixed, specific time
scalloped graph
the behavior that results from accidental reinforcement of an action so that the organism continues to repeat it
superstitious behavior
a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment
cognitive map
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate
latent learning
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions
insight learning
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
observational learning
the general view that learning is largely or wholly due to modeling, imitation, and other social interactions. More specifically, behavior is assumed to be developed and regulated by external stimulus events, such as the influence of other individuals, and by external reinforcement, such as praise, blame, and reward
social learning theory
the acquisition of information, skills, or behavior through watching the performance of others, either directly or via such media as films and videos
modeling
the conditioning of an animal to perform an act that it observes in a member of the same or a different species
vicarious conditioning
frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so
mirror neurons
a process that enables an individual to learn how to change physiological activity for the purposes of improving health and performance
biofeedback
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
intrinsic motivation
a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience
learning
if yours is internal you take control of your life; if external, not is your fault
locus of control
