Unit 2 Vocab Flashcards
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes
binocular depth cues
a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.
retinal disparity
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
perceptual set
the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings. In non-visual settings, any time one thing is perceived despite the variety of things that could be perceived
figure and ground
depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone.
monocular depth cues
an organized whole. These psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. principles of perception, derived by the Gestalt psychologists, that describe the tendency to perceive and interpret certain configurations at the level of the whole rather than in terms of their component features
closure
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information
bottom up processing
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
inattentional blindness
perceptions begin with the most general and move toward the more specific, information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
top down processing
the processes that allow an individual to select and focus on particular input for further processing while simultaneously suppressing irrelevant or distracting information
selective attention
he ability to focus one’s attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli (i.e., noise)
cocktail party affect
an illusion of motion or change in size of a visual stimulus
apparent movement
a state in which cognitive resources are focused on certain aspects of the environment rather than on others and the central nervous system is in a state of readiness to respond to stimuli
attention
a failure to notice changes in the visual array appearing in two successive scenes
change bnlindness
one of the Gestalt principles of organization. It states that people tend to perceive incomplete forms (e.g., images, sounds) as complete, synthesizing the missing units so as to perceive the image or sound as a whole—in effect closing the gap in the incomplete forms to create complete forms
gestalt psychology
the rotation of the two eyes inward toward a light source so that the image falls on corresponding points on the foveas
convergence
a monocular depth cue occurring when two objects are in the same line of vision and the closer object, which is fully in view, partly conceals the farther object
interposition
Parallel lines that converge appear far away
linear perspective
one of the gestalt principles of organization. It states that people tend to organize objects close to each other into a perceptual group and interpret them as a single entity
proximity
Objects that appear sharp, clear, and detailed are seen as closer than more hazy objects
relative clarity
how large something is compared to another object
relative size
a collection of basic knowledge about a concept or entity that serves as a guide to perception, interpretation, imagination, or problem solving
schema
in perceptual classification tasks, the grouping of items on the basis of their shared function or membership in a similar category
similarity
the progressive decline in the resolution of textures as the viewer moves away from them
texture gradient
occurs when mental focus is on multiple tasks or ideas at once
divided attention
already existing structures are changed to accommodate new information
accommodation
cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-direct behaviors and experience critical thinking
executive functions
new information is incorporated into an already existing cognitive structure
assimilation
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
algorithms
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.
availability heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
representativeness heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently
heuristics
critical thinking in which an individual uses linear, logical steps to analyze a number of already formulated solutions to a problem to determine the correct one or the one that is most likely to be successful
convergent thinking
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
creativity
creative thinking in which an individual solves a problem or reaches a decision using strategies that deviate from commonly used or previously taught strategies; in early stages of creativity, quantity is more important than quality
divergent thinking
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is presented can significantly affect decisions and judgments
framing
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to creativity and problem solving
functional fixedness
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
mental set
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response
priming
a mental image or best example of a category
prototype
a failure to recognize the independence of chance events, leading to the mistaken belief that one can predict the outcome of a chance event on the basis of the outcomes of past chance events
gamblers fallacy
the tendency to continue a course of action in which one has already invested money, time, or effort
sunk cost fallacy
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
cognition
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
confirmation bias
the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments
overconfidence
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
belief perserverence
a great boost to creativity; doing something for its own reward
intrinsic motivation
the tendency, after an event has occurred, to overestimate the extent to which the outcome could have been foreseen
hindsight bias
the tendency in forming perceptions to give excessive weight to the starting value
anchoring bias
creative thinking that deliberately attempts to reexamine basic assumptions and change perspective or direction to provide a fresh often indirect approach to solving a problem
divergent thinking
the tendency to interpret events in a way that assigns credit for success to oneself but denies one’s responsibility for failure, which is blamed on external factor
self serving bias
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
echoic memory
retention independent of conscious recollection, non-declarative memory
implicit memory
the process of getting information out of memory storage
retrieval
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.”
explicit memory
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
effortful processing
the memory for intentions, remember to do something ahead of time
prospective memory
the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning. the conversion of a sensory input into a form capable of being processed and deposited in memory. Encoding is the first stage of memory processing, followed by retention and then retrieval
encoding
processing at this semantic level, which usually involves a degree of elaboration, produces stronger, longer-lasting memories.
deep encoding
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
long term memory
an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
long term potentiation
type of processing the process of encoding sounds, actual words, and other auditory input for storage and retrieval
phonemic processing
model developed by Craik and Lockhart that says the level of encoding leads to level of recall.
levels of processing model
theory developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, hypothesizing that information can move through and be retained in any of several memory storage systems, usually of a short-term and a long-term variety
multi store model
the ability to remember personally experienced events associated with a particular time and place.
episodic memory
memory for general factual knowledge and concepts, of the kind that endows information with meaning and ultimately allows people to engage in such complex cognitive processes as recognizing objects and using language.
semantic memory
cognitive encoding of new information that focuses on its meaningful aspects as opposed to its perceptual characteristics. This will usually involve some form of elaboration.the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words
storage
the quality of a behavior or mental process that can be carried out rapidly and without effort or explicit intention. unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
automatic processing
in the working memory model, a component that manages the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad
central executive
the brief retention of information in a highly accessible state. a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
working memory
in the working memory model, a component that holds and manipulates auditory information over short intervals of time
phonological loop
a memory model proposed by Baddeley and Hitch the short-term maintenance and manipulation of information necessary for performing complex cognitive tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension
working memory model
in the working memory model, a component that briefly holds and manipulates information about the appearance of objects and their location in space.
visuospatial sketchpad
memory that retains a few items for only several seconds, in contrast to secondary memory. The term was used in dual-store models of memory before being replaced by short-term memory. [introduced by William James]
primary sensory system
long-term memory for the skills involved in particular tasks. Procedural memory is demonstrated by skilled performance and is often separate from the ability to verbalize this knowledge
procedural memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
sensory memory
processing on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
shallow processing
persistence of learned behavior or experience during a period when it is not being performed or practiced, as indicated by the ability to recall, recognize, reproduce, or relearn it. And, the storage and maintenance of a memory. Retention is the second stage of memory, after encoding and before retrieval. the retention of encoded information over time.
memory
focuses on what words look like.
structural processing
in classification tasks, the grouping of items on the basis of their shared function or membership in a similar category, for example, cow, dog, horse; tractor, bus, motorcycle
categorical classification
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. the process by which the mind divides large pieces of information into smaller units that are easier to retain in short-term memory
chunking
a cognitive phenomenon in which distributing to-be-learned information across time in short, interrupted study sessions leads to better long-term retention than continuous, massed sessions
distributed practice
the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning. the conversion of a sensory input into a form capable of being processed and deposited in memory. Encoding is the first stage of memory processing, followed by retention and then retrieval.
encoding
a learning procedure in which practice periods for a particular task are separated by lengthy rest periods or lengthy periods of practicing different activities or studying other material, rather than occurring close together in time. found to be more effective than massed practice or cramming.
spacing effect
A basic theory of the organization of long-term memory is hierarchies. The hierarchies’ theory contends that long-term memory is organized through hierarchical arrangements of concepts.
hierarchies
a learning procedure in which practice trials occur close together in time, either in a single lengthy session or in sessions separated by short intervals. Often found to be less effective than distributed practice
massed practice
the neurobiological processes by which a permanent memory is formed following a learning experience.
memory consolidation
a mnemonic technique in which the items to be remembered are converted into mental images and associated with specific positions or locations. For instance, to remember a shopping list, each product could be imagined at a different location along a familiar street
method of loci
any device or technique used to assist memory, usually by forging a link or association between the new information to be remembered and information previously encoded.memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
mnemonic devices
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
serial positioning effect
remembering the first thing on a list.
primacy effect
remembering the last thing on the list
regency effect
the loss of memory.
amnesia
the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
rehearsal
a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by synapse loss, causing dementia and a significant decline in functioning. Early features include deficits in memory (e.g., rapid forgetting of new information, impaired recall and recognition)
Alzheimer’s disease
a type of memory loss that occurs when you can’t form new memories. A disturbance in memory marked by inability to learn new information
anterograde amnesia
inability to recall previously learned information or past events. loss of memory for information acquired before the onset of amnesia
retrograde amnesia
a person’s memory for episodes or experiences that occurred in their own life
autobiographical memory
an encoding strategy to facilitate the formation of memory by linking new information to what one already knows, is more detailed and involves additional memory aids like mnemonic devices.
elaborative rehearsal
repeating items over and over (out loud or in your head) to maintain them in short-term memory, also known as rote memorization
maintenance rehearsal
the commonly experienced inability to recall events from early childhood. Childhood amnesia has been attributed to the facts that (a) cognitive abilities necessary for encoding events for the long term have not yet been fully developed and (b) parts of the brain responsible for remembering personal events have not yet matured
infantile amnesia
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
long term memory
persistence of learned behavior or experience during a period when it is not being performed or practiced, as indicated by the ability to recall, recognize, reproduce, or relearn it. And, the storage and maintenance of a memory. Retention is the second stage of memory, after encoding and before retrieval. the retention of encoded information over time
memory retention
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
sensory memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
short term memory
the brief retention of information in a highly accessible state. a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
working memory
a condition in which memory for a past event is improved when the person is in the same biological or psychological state as when the memory was initially formed
context Dependent memory
the finding that memory for an event can be recalled more readily when one is in the same emotional mood (e.g., happy or sad) as when the memory was initially formed. mood-dependent or
mood congruent memory
learning that has occurred in a particular place, circumstance, or state (e.g., while intoxicated) and is displayed only in that context and not when testing occurs in another context.(context-specific learning)
state dependent memory
a deeper level of thinking that includes your ability to think about your thinking; how you understand, adapt, change, control, and use your thought processes. awareness of one’s own cognitive processes, often involving a conscious attempt to control them
metacognition
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. to transfer prior learning or past experience to current consciousness: that is, to retrieve and reproduce information; to remember.
recall
a measure of memory in which the person needs only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
recognition
the process of getting information out of memory storage
retrieval
a prompt or stimulus used to guide memory recall.
retrieval cues
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. the finding that taking a test on previously studied material leads to better retention than does restudying that material for an equivalent amount of time. Although testing is often conceptualized as an assessment tool, this finding suggests that testing (or retrieval practice) can also be considered a learning tool
testing Effect
remembering conceived as involving the use of general knowledge stored in one’s memory to construct a more complete and detailed account of an event or experience by changing or filling in various features of the memory.
constructive memory
Encoding failure refers to a breakdown in the process of getting information into the cognitive system. When encoding failures occur, the information doesn’t get into memory.
Encoding failure
a graphic depiction of the amount of forgetting over time after learning has taken place. In his pioneering studies of forgetting, which involved lists of nonsense syllables, Hermann Ebbinghaus was the first to show that there is generally a sudden drop in retention shortly after learning, followed by a more gradual decline thereafter.
forgetting curve
the increased likelihood that a person will judge an event as having actually occurred (e.g., during childhood) when they imagine the event before making such a judgment.
imagination inflation
the neurobiological processes by which a permanent memory is formed following a learning experience.
memory consolidation
a phenomenon in which a person mistakenly recalls misleading information that an experimenter has provided, instead of accurately recalling the correct information that had been presented earlier.
misinformation effect
the disruptive effect of old learning on the recall of new information.
proactive information
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.
retroactive interference
impaired memory for how, when, or where information was learned despite good memory for the information itself.
source amnesia
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
repression
the experience of attempting to retrieve from memory a specific name or word but not being able to do so. Usually, the name or word is eventually retrieved, but while on the TOT, it seems to hover tantalizingly on the rim of consciousness.
tip of the tongue phenomena
tests designed to assess what a person has learned.
achievement test
tests designed to predict a person’s future performance.
aptitude test
the amount of time elapsed since an individual’s birth, typically expressed in terms of months and years.
chronological age
the degree to which a test or instrument is capable of measuring a concept, trait, or other theoretical entity.
validity
evidence that a test score or other measurement correlates with a variable that can only be assessed at some point after the test has been administered or the measurement made.
construct validity
the degree to which empirical evidence and theoretical rationales support the adequacy and appropriateness of conclusions drawn from some form of assessment. the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to measure or predict.
predictive validity
a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.
g - general intelligence
the gradual cross-cultural rise in raw scores obtained on measures of general intelligence.
Flynn effect
the belief that your intelligence, talents and other abilities are set in stone.
fixed mindset
the belief that a person’s intelligence and abilities can grow and improve with practice.
growth mindset
a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.
intelligence test
defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100.
intelligence quotient (IQ)
the trustworthiness or consistency of a measure, that is, the degree to which a test or other measurement instrument is free of random error, yielding the same results across multiple applications to the same sample.
reliability
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance.
mental age
a measure of the internal consistency of surveys, psychological tests, questionnaires, and other instruments or techniques that assess participant responses on particular constructs. Split-half reliability is determined by dividing the total set of items (e.g., questions) relating to a construct of interest into halves (e.g., odd-numbered and even-numbered questions) and comparing the results obtained from the two subsets of items thus created. The closer the correlation between results from the two versions, the greater the internal consistency of the survey or instrument.
split-half reliability
defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.
standerdization
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.
stereotype threat
a measure of reliability obtained by administering the same test twice over a period of time to a group of individuals.
test retest reliability
a performance boost that occurs when downward comparisons are made with a denigrated outgroup
stereotype lift
mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
intelligence
