Unit 2 Vocab

Question 1

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

Answer 1

binocular depth cues

Question 1

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

Answer 1

retinal disparity

Question 2

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

Answer 2

perceptual set

Question 3

the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings. In non-visual settings, any time one thing is perceived despite the variety of things that could be perceived

Answer 3

figure and ground

Question 4

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone.

Answer 4

monocular depth cues

Question 5

an organized whole. These psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. principles of perception, derived by the Gestalt psychologists, that describe the tendency to perceive and interpret certain configurations at the level of the whole rather than in terms of their component features

Answer 5

closure

Question 6

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

Answer 6

bottom up processing

Question 7

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

Answer 7

inattentional blindness

Question 8

perceptions begin with the most general and move toward the more specific, information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

Answer 8

top down processing

Question 9

the processes that allow an individual to select and focus on particular input for further processing while simultaneously suppressing irrelevant or distracting information

Answer 9

selective attention

Question 10

he ability to focus one’s attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli (i.e., noise)

Answer 10

cocktail party affect

Question 11

an illusion of motion or change in size of a visual stimulus

Answer 11

apparent movement

Question 12

a state in which cognitive resources are focused on certain aspects of the environment rather than on others and the central nervous system is in a state of readiness to respond to stimuli

Answer 12

attention

Question 13

a failure to notice changes in the visual array appearing in two successive scenes

Answer 13

change bnlindness

Question 14

one of the Gestalt principles of organization. It states that people tend to perceive incomplete forms (e.g., images, sounds) as complete, synthesizing the missing units so as to perceive the image or sound as a whole—in effect closing the gap in the incomplete forms to create complete forms

Answer 14

gestalt psychology

Question 15

the rotation of the two eyes inward toward a light source so that the image falls on corresponding points on the foveas

Answer 15

convergence

Question 16

a monocular depth cue occurring when two objects are in the same line of vision and the closer object, which is fully in view, partly conceals the farther object

Answer 16

interposition

Question 17

Parallel lines that converge appear far away

Answer 17

linear perspective

Question 18

one of the gestalt principles of organization. It states that people tend to organize objects close to each other into a perceptual group and interpret them as a single entity

Answer 18

proximity

Question 19

Objects that appear sharp, clear, and detailed are seen as closer than more hazy objects

Answer 19

relative clarity

Question 20

how large something is compared to another object

Answer 20

relative size

Question 21

a collection of basic knowledge about a concept or entity that serves as a guide to perception, interpretation, imagination, or problem solving

Answer 21

schema

Question 22

in perceptual classification tasks, the grouping of items on the basis of their shared function or membership in a similar category

Answer 22

similarity

Question 23

the progressive decline in the resolution of textures as the viewer moves away from them

Answer 23

texture gradient

Question 24

occurs when mental focus is on multiple tasks or ideas at once

Answer 24

divided attention

Question 25

already existing structures are changed to accommodate new information

Answer 25

accommodation

Question 26

cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-direct behaviors and experience critical thinking

Answer 26

executive functions

Question 27

new information is incorporated into an already existing cognitive structure

Answer 27

assimilation

Question 28

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Answer 28

algorithms

Question 29

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.

Answer 29

availability heuristic

Question 30

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

Answer 30

representativeness heuristic

Question 31

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently

Answer 31

heuristics

Question 32

critical thinking in which an individual uses linear, logical steps to analyze a number of already formulated solutions to a problem to determine the correct one or the one that is most likely to be successful

Answer 32

convergent thinking

Question 33

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

Answer 33

creativity

Question 34

creative thinking in which an individual solves a problem or reaches a decision using strategies that deviate from commonly used or previously taught strategies; in early stages of creativity, quantity is more important than quality

Answer 34

divergent thinking

Question 35

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is presented can significantly affect decisions and judgments

Answer 35

framing

Question 36

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to creativity and problem solving

Answer 36

functional fixedness

Question 37

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Answer 37

mental set

Question 38

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

Answer 38

priming

Question 39

a mental image or best example of a category

Answer 39

prototype

Question 40

a failure to recognize the independence of chance events, leading to the mistaken belief that one can predict the outcome of a chance event on the basis of the outcomes of past chance events

Answer 40

gamblers fallacy

Question 41

the tendency to continue a course of action in which one has already invested money, time, or effort

Answer 41

sunk cost fallacy

Question 42

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Answer 42

cognition

Question 43

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Answer 43

confirmation bias

Question 44

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

Answer 44

overconfidence

Question 45

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Answer 45

belief perserverence

Question 46

a great boost to creativity; doing something for its own reward

Answer 46

intrinsic motivation

Question 47

the tendency, after an event has occurred, to overestimate the extent to which the outcome could have been foreseen

Answer 47

hindsight bias

Question 48

the tendency in forming perceptions to give excessive weight to the starting value

Answer 48

anchoring bias

Question 49

creative thinking that deliberately attempts to reexamine basic assumptions and change perspective or direction to provide a fresh often indirect approach to solving a problem

Answer 49

divergent thinking

Question 50

the tendency to interpret events in a way that assigns credit for success to oneself but denies one’s responsibility for failure, which is blamed on external factor

Answer 50

self serving bias

Question 51

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Answer 51

iconic memory

Question 52

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

Answer 52

echoic memory

Question 53

retention independent of conscious recollection, non-declarative memory

Answer 53

implicit memory

Question 54

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Answer 54

retrieval

Question 55

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.”

Answer 55

explicit memory

Question 56

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Answer 56

effortful processing

Question 57

the memory for intentions, remember to do something ahead of time

Answer 57

prospective memory

Question 58

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning. the conversion of a sensory input into a form capable of being processed and deposited in memory. Encoding is the first stage of memory processing, followed by retention and then retrieval

Answer 58

encoding

Question 59

processing at this semantic level, which usually involves a degree of elaboration, produces stronger, longer-lasting memories.

Answer 59

deep encoding

Question 60

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

Answer 60

long term memory

Question 61

an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

Answer 61

long term potentiation

Question 62

type of processing the process of encoding sounds, actual words, and other auditory input for storage and retrieval

Answer 62

phonemic processing

Question 63

model developed by Craik and Lockhart that says the level of encoding leads to level of recall.

Answer 63

levels of processing model

Question 64

theory developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, hypothesizing that information can move through and be retained in any of several memory storage systems, usually of a short-term and a long-term variety

Answer 64

multi store model

Question 65

the ability to remember personally experienced events associated with a particular time and place.

Answer 65

episodic memory

Question 66

memory for general factual knowledge and concepts, of the kind that endows information with meaning and ultimately allows people to engage in such complex cognitive processes as recognizing objects and using language.

Answer 66

semantic memory

Question 67

cognitive encoding of new information that focuses on its meaningful aspects as opposed to its perceptual characteristics. This will usually involve some form of elaboration.the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

Answer 67

storage

Question 68

the quality of a behavior or mental process that can be carried out rapidly and without effort or explicit intention. unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Answer 68

automatic processing

Question 69

in the working memory model, a component that manages the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

Answer 69

central executive

Question 70

the brief retention of information in a highly accessible state. a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

Answer 70

working memory

Question 71

in the working memory model, a component that holds and manipulates auditory information over short intervals of time

Answer 71

phonological loop

Question 72

a memory model proposed by Baddeley and Hitch the short-term maintenance and manipulation of information necessary for performing complex cognitive tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension

Answer 72

working memory model

Question 73

in the working memory model, a component that briefly holds and manipulates information about the appearance of objects and their location in space.

Answer 73

visuospatial sketchpad

Question 74

memory that retains a few items for only several seconds, in contrast to secondary memory. The term was used in dual-store models of memory before being replaced by short-term memory. [introduced by William James]

Answer 74

primary sensory system

Question 75

long-term memory for the skills involved in particular tasks. Procedural memory is demonstrated by skilled performance and is often separate from the ability to verbalize this knowledge

Answer 75

procedural memory

Question 76

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Answer 76

sensory memory

Question 77

processing on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

Answer 77

shallow processing

Question 78

persistence of learned behavior or experience during a period when it is not being performed or practiced, as indicated by the ability to recall, recognize, reproduce, or relearn it. And, the storage and maintenance of a memory. Retention is the second stage of memory, after encoding and before retrieval. the retention of encoded information over time.

Answer 78

memory

Question 79

focuses on what words look like.

Answer 79

structural processing

Question 80

in classification tasks, the grouping of items on the basis of their shared function or membership in a similar category, for example, cow, dog, horse; tractor, bus, motorcycle

Answer 80

categorical classification

Question 81

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. the process by which the mind divides large pieces of information into smaller units that are easier to retain in short-term memory

Answer 81

chunking

Question 82

a cognitive phenomenon in which distributing to-be-learned information across time in short, interrupted study sessions leads to better long-term retention than continuous, massed sessions

Answer 82

distributed practice

Question 83

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning. the conversion of a sensory input into a form capable of being processed and deposited in memory. Encoding is the first stage of memory processing, followed by retention and then retrieval.

Answer 83

encoding

Question 84

a learning procedure in which practice periods for a particular task are separated by lengthy rest periods or lengthy periods of practicing different activities or studying other material, rather than occurring close together in time. found to be more effective than massed practice or cramming.

Answer 84

spacing effect

Question 85

A basic theory of the organization of long-term memory is hierarchies. The hierarchies’ theory contends that long-term memory is organized through hierarchical arrangements of concepts.

Answer 85

hierarchies

Question 86

a learning procedure in which practice trials occur close together in time, either in a single lengthy session or in sessions separated by short intervals. Often found to be less effective than distributed practice

Answer 86

massed practice

Question 87

the neurobiological processes by which a permanent memory is formed following a learning experience.

Answer 87

memory consolidation

Question 88

a mnemonic technique in which the items to be remembered are converted into mental images and associated with specific positions or locations. For instance, to remember a shopping list, each product could be imagined at a different location along a familiar street

Answer 88

method of loci

Question 89

any device or technique used to assist memory, usually by forging a link or association between the new information to be remembered and information previously encoded.memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Answer 89

mnemonic devices

Question 90

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Answer 90

serial positioning effect

Question 91

remembering the first thing on a list.

Answer 91

primacy effect

Question 92

remembering the last thing on the list

Answer 92

regency effect

Question 93

the loss of memory.

Answer 93

amnesia

Question 94

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

Answer 94

rehearsal

Question 95

a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by synapse loss, causing dementia and a significant decline in functioning. Early features include deficits in memory (e.g., rapid forgetting of new information, impaired recall and recognition)

Answer 95

Alzheimer’s disease

Question 96

a type of memory loss that occurs when you can’t form new memories. A disturbance in memory marked by inability to learn new information

Answer 96

anterograde amnesia

Question 97

inability to recall previously learned information or past events. loss of memory for information acquired before the onset of amnesia

Answer 97

retrograde amnesia

Question 98

a person’s memory for episodes or experiences that occurred in their own life

Answer 98

autobiographical memory

Question 99

an encoding strategy to facilitate the formation of memory by linking new information to what one already knows, is more detailed and involves additional memory aids like mnemonic devices.

Answer 99

elaborative rehearsal

Question 100

repeating items over and over (out loud or in your head) to maintain them in short-term memory, also known as rote memorization

Answer 100

maintenance rehearsal

Question 101

the commonly experienced inability to recall events from early childhood. Childhood amnesia has been attributed to the facts that (a) cognitive abilities necessary for encoding events for the long term have not yet been fully developed and (b) parts of the brain responsible for remembering personal events have not yet matured

Answer 101

infantile amnesia

Question 102

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

Answer 102

long term memory

Question 103

persistence of learned behavior or experience during a period when it is not being performed or practiced, as indicated by the ability to recall, recognize, reproduce, or relearn it. And, the storage and maintenance of a memory. Retention is the second stage of memory, after encoding and before retrieval. the retention of encoded information over time

Answer 103

memory retention

Question 104

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Answer 104

sensory memory

Question 105

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

Answer 105

short term memory

Question 106

the brief retention of information in a highly accessible state. a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Answer 106

working memory

Question 107

a condition in which memory for a past event is improved when the person is in the same biological or psychological state as when the memory was initially formed

Answer 107

context Dependent memory

Question 108

the finding that memory for an event can be recalled more readily when one is in the same emotional mood (e.g., happy or sad) as when the memory was initially formed. mood-dependent or

Answer 108

mood congruent memory

Question 109

learning that has occurred in a particular place, circumstance, or state (e.g., while intoxicated) and is displayed only in that context and not when testing occurs in another context.(context-specific learning)

Answer 109

state dependent memory

Question 110

a deeper level of thinking that includes your ability to think about your thinking; how you understand, adapt, change, control, and use your thought processes. awareness of one’s own cognitive processes, often involving a conscious attempt to control them

Answer 110

metacognition

Question 111

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. to transfer prior learning or past experience to current consciousness: that is, to retrieve and reproduce information; to remember.

Answer 111

recall

Question 112

a measure of memory in which the person needs only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

Answer 112

recognition

Question 113

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Answer 113

retrieval

Question 114

a prompt or stimulus used to guide memory recall.

Answer 114

retrieval cues

Question 115

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. the finding that taking a test on previously studied material leads to better retention than does restudying that material for an equivalent amount of time. Although testing is often conceptualized as an assessment tool, this finding suggests that testing (or retrieval practice) can also be considered a learning tool

Answer 115

testing Effect

Question 116

remembering conceived as involving the use of general knowledge stored in one’s memory to construct a more complete and detailed account of an event or experience by changing or filling in various features of the memory.

Answer 116

constructive memory

Question 117

Encoding failure refers to a breakdown in the process of getting information into the cognitive system. When encoding failures occur, the information doesn’t get into memory.

Answer 117

Encoding failure

Question 118

a graphic depiction of the amount of forgetting over time after learning has taken place. In his pioneering studies of forgetting, which involved lists of nonsense syllables, Hermann Ebbinghaus was the first to show that there is generally a sudden drop in retention shortly after learning, followed by a more gradual decline thereafter.

Answer 118

forgetting curve

Question 119

the increased likelihood that a person will judge an event as having actually occurred (e.g., during childhood) when they imagine the event before making such a judgment.

Answer 119

imagination inflation

Question 120

the neurobiological processes by which a permanent memory is formed following a learning experience.

Answer 120

memory consolidation

Question 121

a phenomenon in which a person mistakenly recalls misleading information that an experimenter has provided, instead of accurately recalling the correct information that had been presented earlier.

Answer 121

misinformation effect

Question 122

the disruptive effect of old learning on the recall of new information.

Answer 122

proactive information

Question 123

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

Answer 123

retroactive interference

Question 124

impaired memory for how, when, or where information was learned despite good memory for the information itself.

Answer 124

source amnesia

Question 125

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

Answer 125

repression

Question 126

the experience of attempting to retrieve from memory a specific name or word but not being able to do so. Usually, the name or word is eventually retrieved, but while on the TOT, it seems to hover tantalizingly on the rim of consciousness.

Answer 126

tip of the tongue phenomena

Question 127

tests designed to assess what a person has learned.

Answer 127

achievement test

Question 128

tests designed to predict a person’s future performance.

Answer 128

aptitude test

Question 129

the amount of time elapsed since an individual’s birth, typically expressed in terms of months and years.

Answer 129

chronological age

Question 130

the degree to which a test or instrument is capable of measuring a concept, trait, or other theoretical entity.

Answer 130

validity

Question 131

evidence that a test score or other measurement correlates with a variable that can only be assessed at some point after the test has been administered or the measurement made.

Answer 131

construct validity

Question 132

the degree to which empirical evidence and theoretical rationales support the adequacy and appropriateness of conclusions drawn from some form of assessment. the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to measure or predict.

Answer 132

predictive validity

Question 133

a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.

Answer 133

g - general intelligence

Question 134

the gradual cross-cultural rise in raw scores obtained on measures of general intelligence.

Answer 134

Flynn effect

Question 135

the belief that your intelligence, talents and other abilities are set in stone.

Answer 135

fixed mindset

Question 136

the belief that a person’s intelligence and abilities can grow and improve with practice.

Answer 136

growth mindset

Question 137

a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.

Answer 137

intelligence test

Question 138

defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100.

Answer 138

intelligence quotient (IQ)

Question 139

the trustworthiness or consistency of a measure, that is, the degree to which a test or other measurement instrument is free of random error, yielding the same results across multiple applications to the same sample.

Answer 139

reliability

Question 140

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance.

Answer 140

mental age

Question 141

a measure of the internal consistency of surveys, psychological tests, questionnaires, and other instruments or techniques that assess participant responses on particular constructs. Split-half reliability is determined by dividing the total set of items (e.g., questions) relating to a construct of interest into halves (e.g., odd-numbered and even-numbered questions) and comparing the results obtained from the two subsets of items thus created. The closer the correlation between results from the two versions, the greater the internal consistency of the survey or instrument.

Answer 141

split-half reliability

Question 142

defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.

Answer 142

standerdization

Question 143

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.

Answer 143

stereotype threat

Question 144

a measure of reliability obtained by administering the same test twice over a period of time to a group of individuals.

Answer 144

test retest reliability

Question 145

a performance boost that occurs when downward comparisons are made with a denigrated outgroup

Answer 145

stereotype lift

Question 146

mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

Answer 146

intelligence