Unit 2 Vocab

Question 1

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

Question 1

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

Question 2

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

Question 3

the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings. In non-visual settings, any time one thing is perceived despite the variety of things that could be perceived

Question 4

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone.

Question 5

an organized whole. These psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. principles of perception, derived by the Gestalt psychologists, that describe the tendency to perceive and interpret certain configurations at the level of the whole rather than in terms of their component features

Question 6

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

Question 7

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

Question 8

perceptions begin with the most general and move toward the more specific, information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

Question 9

the processes that allow an individual to select and focus on particular input for further processing while simultaneously suppressing irrelevant or distracting information

Question 10

he ability to focus one’s attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli (i.e., noise)

Question 11

an illusion of motion or change in size of a visual stimulus

Question 12

a state in which cognitive resources are focused on certain aspects of the environment rather than on others and the central nervous system is in a state of readiness to respond to stimuli

Question 13

a failure to notice changes in the visual array appearing in two successive scenes

Question 14

one of the Gestalt principles of organization. It states that people tend to perceive incomplete forms (e.g., images, sounds) as complete, synthesizing the missing units so as to perceive the image or sound as a whole—in effect closing the gap in the incomplete forms to create complete forms

Question 15

the rotation of the two eyes inward toward a light source so that the image falls on corresponding points on the foveas

Question 16

a monocular depth cue occurring when two objects are in the same line of vision and the closer object, which is fully in view, partly conceals the farther object

Question 17

Parallel lines that converge appear far away

Question 18

one of the gestalt principles of organization. It states that people tend to organize objects close to each other into a perceptual group and interpret them as a single entity

Question 19

Objects that appear sharp, clear, and detailed are seen as closer than more hazy objects

Question 20

how large something is compared to another object

Question 21

a collection of basic knowledge about a concept or entity that serves as a guide to perception, interpretation, imagination, or problem solving

Question 22

in perceptual classification tasks, the grouping of items on the basis of their shared function or membership in a similar category

Question 23

the progressive decline in the resolution of textures as the viewer moves away from them

Question 24

occurs when mental focus is on multiple tasks or ideas at once

Question 25

already existing structures are changed to accommodate new information

Question 26

cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-direct behaviors and experience critical thinking

Question 27

new information is incorporated into an already existing cognitive structure

Question 28

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Question 29

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.

Question 30

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

Question 31

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently

Question 32

critical thinking in which an individual uses linear, logical steps to analyze a number of already formulated solutions to a problem to determine the correct one or the one that is most likely to be successful

Question 33

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

Question 34

creative thinking in which an individual solves a problem or reaches a decision using strategies that deviate from commonly used or previously taught strategies; in early stages of creativity, quantity is more important than quality

Question 35

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is presented can significantly affect decisions and judgments

Question 36

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to creativity and problem solving

Question 37

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Question 38

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

Question 39

a mental image or best example of a category

Question 40

a failure to recognize the independence of chance events, leading to the mistaken belief that one can predict the outcome of a chance event on the basis of the outcomes of past chance events

Question 41

the tendency to continue a course of action in which one has already invested money, time, or effort

Question 42

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Question 43

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Question 44

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

Question 45

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Question 46

a great boost to creativity; doing something for its own reward

Question 47

the tendency, after an event has occurred, to overestimate the extent to which the outcome could have been foreseen

Question 48

the tendency in forming perceptions to give excessive weight to the starting value

Question 49

creative thinking that deliberately attempts to reexamine basic assumptions and change perspective or direction to provide a fresh often indirect approach to solving a problem

Question 50

the tendency to interpret events in a way that assigns credit for success to oneself but denies one’s responsibility for failure, which is blamed on external factor

Question 51

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Question 52

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

Question 53

retention independent of conscious recollection, non-declarative memory

Question 54

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Question 55

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.”

Question 56

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Question 57

the memory for intentions, remember to do something ahead of time

Question 58

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning. the conversion of a sensory input into a form capable of being processed and deposited in memory. Encoding is the first stage of memory processing, followed by retention and then retrieval

Question 59

processing at this semantic level, which usually involves a degree of elaboration, produces stronger, longer-lasting memories.

Question 60

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

Question 61

an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

Question 62

type of processing the process of encoding sounds, actual words, and other auditory input for storage and retrieval

Question 63

model developed by Craik and Lockhart that says the level of encoding leads to level of recall.

Question 64

theory developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, hypothesizing that information can move through and be retained in any of several memory storage systems, usually of a short-term and a long-term variety

Question 65

the ability to remember personally experienced events associated with a particular time and place.

Question 66

memory for general factual knowledge and concepts, of the kind that endows information with meaning and ultimately allows people to engage in such complex cognitive processes as recognizing objects and using language.

Question 67

cognitive encoding of new information that focuses on its meaningful aspects as opposed to its perceptual characteristics. This will usually involve some form of elaboration.the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

Question 68

the quality of a behavior or mental process that can be carried out rapidly and without effort or explicit intention. unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Question 69

in the working memory model, a component that manages the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

Question 70

the brief retention of information in a highly accessible state. a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

Question 71

in the working memory model, a component that holds and manipulates auditory information over short intervals of time

Question 72

a memory model proposed by Baddeley and Hitch the short-term maintenance and manipulation of information necessary for performing complex cognitive tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension

Question 73

in the working memory model, a component that briefly holds and manipulates information about the appearance of objects and their location in space.

Question 74

memory that retains a few items for only several seconds, in contrast to secondary memory. The term was used in dual-store models of memory before being replaced by short-term memory. [introduced by William James]

Question 75

long-term memory for the skills involved in particular tasks. Procedural memory is demonstrated by skilled performance and is often separate from the ability to verbalize this knowledge

Question 76

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Question 77

processing on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

Question 78

persistence of learned behavior or experience during a period when it is not being performed or practiced, as indicated by the ability to recall, recognize, reproduce, or relearn it. And, the storage and maintenance of a memory. Retention is the second stage of memory, after encoding and before retrieval. the retention of encoded information over time.

Question 79

focuses on what words look like.

Question 80

in classification tasks, the grouping of items on the basis of their shared function or membership in a similar category, for example, cow, dog, horse; tractor, bus, motorcycle

Question 81

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. the process by which the mind divides large pieces of information into smaller units that are easier to retain in short-term memory

Question 82

a cognitive phenomenon in which distributing to-be-learned information across time in short, interrupted study sessions leads to better long-term retention than continuous, massed sessions

Question 83

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning. the conversion of a sensory input into a form capable of being processed and deposited in memory. Encoding is the first stage of memory processing, followed by retention and then retrieval.

Question 84

a learning procedure in which practice periods for a particular task are separated by lengthy rest periods or lengthy periods of practicing different activities or studying other material, rather than occurring close together in time. found to be more effective than massed practice or cramming.

Question 85

A basic theory of the organization of long-term memory is hierarchies. The hierarchies’ theory contends that long-term memory is organized through hierarchical arrangements of concepts.

Question 86

a learning procedure in which practice trials occur close together in time, either in a single lengthy session or in sessions separated by short intervals. Often found to be less effective than distributed practice

Question 87

the neurobiological processes by which a permanent memory is formed following a learning experience.

Question 88

a mnemonic technique in which the items to be remembered are converted into mental images and associated with specific positions or locations. For instance, to remember a shopping list, each product could be imagined at a different location along a familiar street

Question 89

any device or technique used to assist memory, usually by forging a link or association between the new information to be remembered and information previously encoded.memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Question 90

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Question 91

remembering the first thing on a list.

Question 92

remembering the last thing on the list

Question 93

the loss of memory.

Question 94

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

Question 95

a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by synapse loss, causing dementia and a significant decline in functioning. Early features include deficits in memory (e.g., rapid forgetting of new information, impaired recall and recognition)

Question 96

a type of memory loss that occurs when you can’t form new memories. A disturbance in memory marked by inability to learn new information

Question 97

inability to recall previously learned information or past events. loss of memory for information acquired before the onset of amnesia

Question 98

a person’s memory for episodes or experiences that occurred in their own life

Question 99

an encoding strategy to facilitate the formation of memory by linking new information to what one already knows, is more detailed and involves additional memory aids like mnemonic devices.

Question 100

repeating items over and over (out loud or in your head) to maintain them in short-term memory, also known as rote memorization

Question 101

the commonly experienced inability to recall events from early childhood. Childhood amnesia has been attributed to the facts that (a) cognitive abilities necessary for encoding events for the long term have not yet been fully developed and (b) parts of the brain responsible for remembering personal events have not yet matured

Question 102

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

Question 103

persistence of learned behavior or experience during a period when it is not being performed or practiced, as indicated by the ability to recall, recognize, reproduce, or relearn it. And, the storage and maintenance of a memory. Retention is the second stage of memory, after encoding and before retrieval. the retention of encoded information over time

Question 104

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Question 105

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

Question 106

the brief retention of information in a highly accessible state. a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Question 107

a condition in which memory for a past event is improved when the person is in the same biological or psychological state as when the memory was initially formed

Question 108

the finding that memory for an event can be recalled more readily when one is in the same emotional mood (e.g., happy or sad) as when the memory was initially formed. mood-dependent or ____________________________________

Question 109

learning that has occurred in a particular place, circumstance, or state (e.g., while intoxicated) and is displayed only in that context and not when testing occurs in another context.(context-specific learning)

Question 110

a deeper level of thinking that includes your ability to think about your thinking; how you understand, adapt, change, control, and use your thought processes. awareness of one’s own cognitive processes, often involving a conscious attempt to control them

Question 111

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a
fill-in-the-blank test. to transfer prior learning or past experience to current consciousness: that is, to retrieve and reproduce information; to remember.

Question 112

a measure of memory in which the person needs only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

Question 113

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Question 114

a prompt or stimulus used to guide memory recall.

Question 115

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. the finding that taking a test on previously studied material leads to better retention than does restudying that material for an equivalent amount of time. Although testing is often conceptualized as an assessment tool, this finding suggests that testing (or retrieval practice) can also be considered a learning tool