Unit 1 Exam Revision Flashcards
Psychological Development
an individual’s changes in functioning across multiple domains, including the lifelong growth across emotional, cognitive, and social domains
Hereditary Factors
factors that influence development and are
genetically passed down from biological parents to their offspring
Environmental Factors
factors that influence development and arise from an individual’s physical and social surroundings
Genetic Predisposition
the increased likelihood to develop certain traits, including diseases, if certain conditions are met
Biopsychosocial Model
a holistic, interdisciplinary framework for understanding the human experience in terms of the influence of biological, psychological, and
social factors
Emotional Development
the continuous, lifelong development of skills that allow individuals to control, express, and recognise emotions in an appropriate way
Attachment
a long-lasting emotional bond between two individuals:
- Secure attachment - trust, value, emotional security
- Insecure attachment - craving/rejecting affection, anxiety, bad emotional expression
Cognitive Development
the continuous, lifelong development of the ability to think, comprehend, and organise information from the internal and external environment
Stages of Development in Cognition
Sensorimotor (0-2) - object permanence, goal-directed behaviour
Preoperational (2-7) - egocentric, overcome centration, understand reversibility
Concrete operational (7-12) - understand conservation, classification, perform simple metal operations
Formal operational (12+) - produce abstract thought, reason and logic
Social Development
the continuous, lifelong development of certain skills, attitudes, relationships, and behaviours that enable an individual to interact with others and to function as a member of society
Crises across the lifespan (0-12)
Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1) - reliable caregivers = trust, trusting relationships as adult
Autonomy vs. shame/doubt (1-3) - encouraged = autonomy, independence as adult
Initiative vs. guilt (3-6) - interact with others = independent thought, self confidence
Industry vs. inferiority (6-12) - feels proud of performances = industry
Crises across the lifespan (12-65+)
Identity vs. role confusion (12-19) - made clear = sense of identity
Intimacy vs. isolation (19-30) - sense of self/trust = intimacy
Generativity vs. stagnation (30-64) - sense of purpose & connect w/ society = generativity
Integrity vs. despair (65+) - satisfaction w/ achievements = integrity
Maturation
the biologically programmed process of growth that has a fixed sequence and facilitates all aspects of our development as we grow
Plasticity
the brain’s ability to physically change shape in response to experience and learning
Critical periods
the narrow, rigid developmental period in
which a specific function or skill must be learnt
e.g. 1st language acquisition
Sensitive periods
the optimal developmental period for a specific
function or skill to be learnt in the fastest and
easiest way
e.g. 2nd language acquisition
Psychological criteria for categorising typical and atypical behaviour
- cultural perspectives
- social norms
- statistical rarity
- personal distress
- maladaptive behaviour
Neurotypicality
a term used to describe individuals who display
neurological and cognitive functioning that is typical or expected
Individual usually:
- good communication skills
- focus for prolonged periods
- function in distracting environments
- adapt to change in routine
Neurodiversity
variations in neurological development and functioning within and between groups of people
Individuals usually:
- express themselves through creativity
- can’t focus for prolonged periods but detail oriented
- get distracted easily
- difficult adapting to change
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
a neurodevelopmental condition characterised
by impaired social interactions, verbal and non-verbal communication difficulties, and narrow interests, and repetitive behaviour
Brain:
- big brain in childhood, normal after
- thinner temporal cortex (sounds & speech)
- thicker frontal cortex (complex social & cognitive processes)
ASD - strengths and challenges
Strengths:
- attention to detail
- retention of facts
- high motivation & enthusiasm in activities of interest
- high accuracy
- good problem solving
Challenges:
- unable to make/keep eye contact
- unable to read facial expressions & recognise emotions
- not good with routine change
- obsessive and singular interest
- delayed language, movement, cognitive/learning skills
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
a neurological condition characterised by
persistent inattention or hyperactivity that disrupts social, academic, or occupational functioning
Brain:
- hyperactivity (increased) & hypoactivity (decreased) in some brain regions
- delayed maturation of cerebral cortex (cognitive & attention control)
- faster maturation of motor cortex (restlessness & fidgeting)
ADHD - strengths and challenges
Strengths:
- hyperfocus
- creative
- enthusiasm
- find innovative ways to complete tasks
Challenges:
- time management
- concentration
- staying on top
- acting rationally
- emotional articulation
- impulsivity
Dyslexia
a neurologically based learning difficulty manifested as severe challenges in reading,
spelling, writing words, and sometimes in
arithmetic
Brain:
- less grey matter volume (reading skills, speech processing, spelling recognition)
- weaker white matter organisation (reading speed)
- hypoactivation of certain brain regions (recognising symbols & letters & associating them with sounds)
- reduced neuroplasticity of left-hemisphere (language & reading)
Dyslexia - strengths and challenges
Strengths:
- strong memory
- puzzle solving skills
- spatial awareness
- initiating conversation
- big-picture thinking
- narrative reasoning
Challenges:
- reading and writing
- slow learning
- forming words
- understanding jokes/expressions
- lack confidence in activities w/ reading/writing
Mental wellbeing
an individual’s current psychological state,
involving their ability to think, process information, and regulate emotions
Mental health workers
members of a mental health treatment team who assist in providing a wide range of services and care for patients with psychological or social problems
social workers – support people make change to improve personal & social wellbeing by connecting people to sources of support (housing, therapy)
Youth workers – support young people develop skills needed to make changes in their lives
OTs – promote wellbeing by letting people participate in responsibilities of everyday life
Psychologists
an individual who is professionally trained in one or more branches or subfields of psychology
Psychiatrist
a doctor who specialises in the diagnosis, treatment, prevention, and study of mental, behavioural, and personality disorders
- A medical doctor who can prescribe medication
- need a referral
Mental health organisation
a company or group that works to address or advocate for mental health, such as through providing support or specialised services
- mental health workers, psychologists, psychiatrists, and mental health organisations work together to provide holistic support for a patient
E.g., kids helpline, beyond blue, headspace, amaze, lifeline
Structural neuroimaging techniques
Computerised tomography (CT) :
- 2D x-rays are stacked to create a 3D image
- used for disease/disorder detection
- black and white & aren’t as detailed
- uses electromagnetic ionising radiation
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
- uses magnetic & radio fields to take detailed 2D and 3D images
- used for disease/disorder detection
- less harmful than CT scans
- produce detailed, coloured images
Functional neuroimaging techniques
Positron emission tomography (PET)
- person injected w/ radioactive glucose substance - help brain light up when active
- solution releases emissions helps trace biochemical changes
- person asked to complete a task
- shows colours - represent level of activity
- red = most activity, purple = least
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
- uses magnetic & radio fields to take 2D and 3D images
- measures activity by tracing biochemical changes in brain - traces oxygen
- activity reflected w/colours
- preferred method - higher quality images, no needle
Hindbrain
a region at the base of the brain, located
around and including some of the brainstem
- responsible for coordinating basic survival functions
- in terms of evolution, was 1st to develop
- contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum
Cerebellum
- monitor and coordinate skeletal muscle movement
- Receives info about body’s position in space & planned motor movements from brain regions
- Maintaining balance and posture
- Controlling voluntary movement (procedural and sequential) (riding a bike, tying your shoe)
- Forms and consolidates procedural memories (knowing how to brush your teeth…)
Damage = difficulty coordinate muscle control for everyday activity (walking etc), problems with balance, difficulty with speech
Medulla
- connects brain and spinal cord, pathway for neural signals
- regulate autonomic processes, (respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, digestion)
- controls reflexive actions (vomiting, coughing, sneezing)
- subconscious and are fundamental to survival
Damage = often fatal (e.g. blow to back of head)
Pons
- located above medulla (small bundle of nerve tissue)
- regulates respiratory system & controls sleeping, dreaming, & waking.
- involved in involuntary behaviours (blinking)
- relays info between brain areas, (cerebral cortex-cerebellum) (medulla-midbrain)
Damage = often fatal/develops locked-in-syndrome (no sensory/motor function, except moving eyes up and down, or blinking)
Midbrain
a region at the centre of the brain, between the hindbrain and forebrain, and is part of the brainstem
- relays info between hindbrain-forebrain
- process sensory info (auditory, visual, tactile)
- coordinates motor movement relating to sensory stimuli (eye movement)
- regulates sleep & physiological arousal
- contains the reticular formation
Reticular formation
- network of neurons that run through centre of midbrain & hindbrain & up toward forebrain
- filters neural info that’s travelling to brain & directs them to brain areas & structures.
- integrates & relays neural info relating to survival & reflexive functions
- regulates sleep, wakefulness, consciousness.
- regulates physiological arousal & alertness through the reticular activating system (RAS), to higher brain areas about necessary info
Damage= disruption of sleep-wake cycle & result in coma/chronic vegetative state
Forebrain
a large and prominent brain region
that is located at the top and front of the brain
- cognitions, perception, learning, language, memory
-receiving & processing sensory info, voluntary movement
- contains intricate neuronal networks - enables higher-order functions
- contains cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
- maintains body’s internal environment (homeostasis)
- regulates release of hormones from various glands - controls pituitary gland.
- Influences basic biological needs (hunger, thirst, sleep).
- Part of the limbic system – involved in emotions (anger and fear)
Damage = inability to regulate internal bodily functions, problems with sleep, overwhelming urge to eat, uncontrollable anger
Thalamus
- filters info from sense receptor sites (except nose), passes to relevant brain areas for further processing.
- relays motor signals b/w higher & lower brain areas involved in motor control (relaying sensory and motor signals)
Damage = visual or hearing impairment or inability to feel sensations when touched
Cerebrum
- occupies most of forebrain
- outer surface called the cerebral cortex -
2 hemispheres (left and right), connected via corpus callosum - allows passing of information - coordinates cognition, perception, judgement, language, and problem-solving.
- receives & processes sensory info, & initiates voluntary motor movement.
Cerebral cortex
the outer layer of the cerebrum that covers the brain
- composed of 3 functional areas: motor, sensory & association
- divided into 4 regions: frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal (FPOT)
Functional areas
motor areas - initiating & executing motor movement, made of motor neurons
sensory areas - receiving & processing sensory info, made of sensory neurons
association areas - integrate info from motor & sensory areas to execute complex processes
Frontal lobe
- largest of the four lobes
- located in the upper forward half of each cerebral hemisphere
Association and motor areas: - prefrontal cortex
- premotor cortex
- primary motor cortex
- broca’s area
Prefrontal cortex, premotor cortex, primary motor cortex
Prefrontal cortex:
behind the forehead
- association area
- reasoning & logic, planning, problem-solving, decision-making, attention, emotions, reactions, self-awareness, personality
- plans required motor sequence & sends instruction to premotor cortex
Premotor Cortex:
- motor area
- organises movement sequence
- prepares movement sequence & sends to primary motor cortex
Primary motor cortex:
- motor area
- controls voluntary movement through skeletal muscles
- PMC in left lobe controls right side of body (vice versa)
- sends signals to cerebellum to do movement
Prefrontal –> premotor –> primary motor
Broca’s Area
- association area
- next to motor cortex in frontal lobe of left hemisphere
- coordinates muscle movement for speech & provides info to right motor areas
- production of articulate speech
Damage = brocas aphasia - difficulty forming clear speech (no loss in comprehension)
Parietal lobe
- behind frontal lobe & upper back half of brain
- association area - attention, spatial reasoning, judging position in space, info abt muscle movement
- sensory area - primary somatosensory cortex
Primary Somatosensory Cortex
- sensory area
- processes info from skin & body parts
- left parietal lobes receive info from right side of body (vice versa)
Occipital lobe
- back of cerebral hemisphere
- association area - visual perception & interpretation, organises & integrates info from sensory area with other info
- sensory area - primary visual cortex
Damage = serious visual impairment
Primary Visual Cortex
- sensory area
- back of each occipital lobe
- where visual info from eyes is stored
- right primary visual cortex receives info from left visual field (vice versa)
Temporal lobe
- lower central area of brain
- association area - processing auditory info, plays important role in memory
Functional areas:
- primary auditory cortex (sensory area)
- wernicke’s area (association area)
Primary Auditory Cortex
- receives & processes sounds from both ears to perceive & identify different types of sounds
- left hemisphere - verbal sounds (like words)
- right hemisphere - non-verbal sounds (music)
Wernicke’s area
- only in left hemisphere
- below primary auditory cortex
- comprehension of speech
Neuron
a nerve cell that receives and transmits neural information
Dendrites - receive info from other neurons & transmits it to the nucleus
Nucleus/Soma - combines info received from dendrites
Axon - transmits info from nucleus to other neurons/cells
Myelin - fatty, insulating coating on axon to speed up message transmission
Axon terminals - stores & releases neurotransmitters across the synapse
Synapse
the region that includes the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron, the synaptic gap, and
the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron
Neuroplasticity
the ability of the brain to change in response
to experience or environmental stimulation
Developmental plasticity
changes in the brain that occur in response to
ageing and maturation
Factors that influence it:
- synaptogenesis
- synaptic pruning
- myelination
Synaptogenesis
the formation of synapses between neurons as
axon terminals and dendrites grow
- can occur throughout lifespan, most intense in infancy
Synaptic pruning
the elimination of underused synapses
- occurs throughout lifespan, most intense when 2/3 yrs and adolescence
Myelination
the formation and development of myelin
around the axon of a neuron
- contributes to increase in brain size
- allows neurons to send messages faster
- sensory areas are myelinated before motor areas
Brain Trauma
damage to the brain that is caused by
an external force
Effects on neurons:
- death of neurons & neuronal connections
- overstimulation of neurons - too many neurotransmitters in tissue
- damage to neurons for specific tasks
Adaptive plasticity
the brain’s ability to restore adequate neural
functioning over time after sustaining injury
Factors that influence it:
- sprouting
- rerouting
Sprouting
a neuron’s ability to develop new branches on the dendrites or axons
Rerouting
a neuron’s ability to form a new connection with another undamaged neuron
Ways to maintain brain functioning
- mental stimulation
- diet
- physical activity
- social support
Acquired brain injury
all types of brain injury that occur after birth
Traumatic and non-traumatic brain injury
Traumatic brain injury - damage to the brain caused by an external force
Non-traumatic brain injury - damage to the brain caused by internal factors
Brain injury effect on biopsychosocial functioning
Biological function:
- behaviour
- organ function
- cellular and neuronal function
- seizures, movement impairment, smell impairment
Psychological function:
- cognition
- behaviour
- emotion
- memory loss, personality changes, increased susceptibility to mental health disorders
Social function:
- relationships
- interactions with the environment
- interpersonal skills
- job productivity, social support, antisocial behaviour
Neurological disorders
diseases characterised by any damage to or
malfunctioning of the nervous system
Parkinson’s Disease
- a progressive disease of the nervous system characterised by both motor and non-motor symptoms
- progressive loss of neurons in the brain.
- Neurodegeneration occurs in the part of the brain that produces dopamine, a neurotransmitter responsible for coordination of voluntary movement & pleasure and pain.
- low dopamine levels lead to the symptoms
Motor symptoms - tremors, reduced motor control, muscles stiffness
Non-motor symptoms - problems w/ cognition, fatigue, depression & anxiety
Neurodegenerative diseases
a disease characterised by the progressive loss of neurons in the brain
Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)
a progressive and fatal brain disease associated with repeated head injuries and concussions
Concussion - a mild traumatic brain injury that
temporarily disrupts brain function
Symptoms:
- impairment in executive functions
- memory loss
- depression
- disturbances in behaviour
- anxiety and paranoia
- mood impairments
Diagnosis:
- can only be diagnosed in a post-mortem examination
- associated with the build-up of a protein (p-tau) in brain regions
- ^ forms neurofibrillary tangles - stop transport of essential substances and eventually kill the neuron
