Type 2 Diabetes (Intro)

Question 1

Normally, how does glucose break down?

Answer 1

in the presence of O2, it breaks down to form CO2 and water

Question 2

What is the source of energy for all cells?

Answer 2

glucose

Question 3

Where is glucose absorbed?

Answer 3

into the bloodstream and intestines

muscle & fat cells absorb it for energy storage and usage

Question 4

Normal ______ _______ requires a continuous supply of glucose

Answer 4

cerebral function

Question 5

Normally, how does the body respond to increase in blood sugar levels?

Answer 5

by stimulating the pancreas to release insulin which binds to cell surface membranes, making them more permeable to glucose​

Question 6

What happens after glucose is absorbed? (3)

Answer 6

it is either:
- used for energy
- stored as glycogen in the liver/muscle
- converted into fat

Question 7

After a meal, how much glucose enters the bloodstream?

Where does the rest go?

Answer 7

about 2/3 of glucose from a meal enters bloodstream

the rest is stored as glycogen in the liver (if that storage is full, it is converted to fat)

Question 8

The pancreas’ secretion of insulin does what?

Answer 8

helps the liver store glucose as glycogen & regulates blood sugar levels

Question 9

When can glycogen in the liver or fat can be converted back to glucose?

Answer 9

when the body needs a boost of energy

(e.g., during exercise or fasting).

Question 10

When the body needs more energy, _______ and ___ can be converted back into glucose

Answer 10

glycogen and fat

Question 11

especially after a high carb mean, excess glucose can be excreted in _____

Answer 11

urine

Question 12

How does the body get glucose in between meals?

Answer 12

the liver releases glucose into the bloodstream and the pancreas releases a small (basal) amount of insulin ​

Question 13

What is the most dense form of fuel storage?

Answer 13

Fat

Question 14

What is triglycerides from fat broken down into during metabolization?

Answer 14

glycerol molecule & 3 fatty acids

Question 15

What can the glycerol molecule do?

Answer 15

Can enter glycolytic pathway and be used with glucose for energy

Question 16

Fatty acids are stored in ______ and can be used for ______

BUT what can they create?

Answer 16

tissue; energy

ketoacidosis

Question 17

How can fat metabolism lead to ketoacidosis?

Answer 17

The body doesn’t prefer fat as a primary energy source but may use it during starvation, which can lead to ketoacidosis (undesirable accumulation of ketones in the blood).​

Question 18

What are the building block of proteins?

Answer 18

amino acids

Question 19

In the absence of carbs and fats, what can be broken down into energy?

Answer 19

protein may also be broken down for energy, though this is not the body’s preferred source.

Question 20

excessive amounts of amino acids can only be stored…?

Answer 20

in limited amounts in the body

Question 21

During glycolysis, a glucose molecule is broken down into what? (3)

Answer 21

• pyruvate
• NADH
• ATP

Question 22

Glucose must _____ _____ to be properly utilized, as excess glucose in the bloodstream is not effective for _____ use.

Answer 22

enter cells;

energy

Question 23

What is glycogenesis?

Answer 23

Process of glycogen formation from glucose.

Question 24

When glucose intake exceeds immediate energy needs, what happens?

Answer 24

it is converted into glycogen and stored.

Question 25

during glycogenesis, the amount of glycogen formed depends on what?

Answer 25

the energy demand (ex: sitting vs exercising)

Question 26

Glucose is stored in cells to a saturation point for how long?

Answer 26

about 12-24 hours

Question 27

what is the reverse process of glycolysis?

Answer 27

glycogenesis

Question 28

What is glycogenolysis?

Answer 28

The breakdown of stored glycogen to glucose. (Stored glycogen in the liver is converted back to glucose to restore blood sugar levels)

Question 29

When does glycogenolysis occur?

Answer 29

when blood glucose levels are low → in response to hormonal and neural signals

Question 30

What produces the hormonal and neural signals that begin glycogenolysis? (3)

Answer 30

- epinephrine - glucagon - insulin

Question 31

What does glycogenolysis inhibit?

Answer 31

glucogenesis

Question 32

What is gluconeogenesis?

Answer 32

The synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources (like fat and protein)

Question 33

Gluconeogenesis is the opposite process of what?

Answer 33

glycolysis

Question 34

Where does gluconeogenesis primarily occur?

Answer 34

in the liver

Question 35

During gluconeogenesis, _____ ____ and ____ are converted to glucose

Answer 35

amino acids and fats

Question 36

During gluconeogenesis, fats are broken down into what?

Answer 36

fatty acids and/or glycerol

Question 37

During gluconeogenesis, amino acids are broken down into what?

Answer 37

lactic acid

Question 38

gluconeogenesis can lead to the development of what?

Answer 38

ketones

Question 39

Gluconeogenesis plays a role in maintaining what?

Answer 39

acid-base balance

Question 40

What is glucagon?

Answer 40

Is a hormone produced by alpha cells in the pancreas. It is released in response to a drop in blood sugar, prolonged fasting, exercise and protein-rich meals.

Question 41

In the pancreas, what endocrine cells does the Islets of Langerhans contain?

Answer 41

beta, alpha, delta, and F/PP cells

Question 42

Beta cells in the pancreas produce what?

Answer 42

insulin and amylin

Question 43

alpha cells in the pancreas produce what?

Answer 43

glucagon

Question 44

delta cells in the pancreas produce what?

Answer 44

somatostatin

Question 45

F/PP cells in the pancreas produce what?

Answer 45

pancreatic polypeptide

Question 46

alpha cells in the pancreas stimulate what?

Answer 46

Stimulate the liver to break down glycogen into glucose (glycogenolysis)

Question 47

what does somatostatin do?

Answer 47

plays a role in regulating the effects of insulin

Question 48

What does insulin stop? (5)

Answer 48

- gluconeogenesis - glucogenolysis - lipolysis - ketogenesis - proteolysis

Question 49

List the actions of insulin (5)

Answer 49

- glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue - glycolysis - glycogen synthesis - protein synthesis - uptake of ions

Question 50

What is insulin?

Answer 50

a hormone released by beta cells in the pancreas to help regulate blood sugar levels.

Question 51

What is insulin required for?

Answer 51

required by the body cells to initiate active transport of glucose into the cell

Question 52

In skeletal muscle cells, insulin promotes the storage of glucose as ______

Answer 52

glycogen

Question 53

In adipose tissue, insulin stops the release of ____ ____

Answer 53

fatty acids

Question 54

In the liver, insulin stops ____________, and instead promotes the production of _______ and ____

Answer 54

gluconeogenesis; glycogen; fat

Question 55

Insulin also plays a role in producing ____ ____, which helps maintain healthy endothelial tissue and supports ____ ____ health

Answer 55

nitric oxide; beta cell

Question 56

What happens to insulin levels after a meal?

Answer 56

they spike to help bring blood glucose levels down

Question 57

What does amylin do? (2)

Answer 57

- slows glucose absorption in the small intestine - suppresses glucagon secretion (manages postprandial blood sugar)​

Question 58

what does somatostatin do? (3)

Answer 58

- decreases GI activity - suppresses glucagon and insulin secretion - secreted with heavy fat/high carb meal​

Question 59

what are counter-regulatory hormones?

Answer 59

Hormones that counteract insulin and raise blood glucose levels when needed

Question 60

list the counter regulatory hormones

Answer 60

Epinephrine​ Cortisol​ Growth hormones

Question 61

What does glucagon-like peptides (GLP-1) do? (5)

Answer 61

- Released after a meal - Stimulates insulin secretion - Suppresses glucagon​ - Delays gastric emptying - Increases satiety (feeling full)

Question 62

what does estrogen increase? what may this help explain?

Answer 62

it increases beta cell activity, which may help explain the cardioprotective effects seen in premenopausal women

Question 63

List the functions of glucagon (3)

Answer 63

- Causes the liver to breakdown stored glycogen to produce glucose (Glycogenolysis) - Activation of gluconeogenesis in the liver - Activates lipase, to break down adipose tissue into fatty acids​

Question 64

List the actions of insulin on glucose metabolism (3)

Answer 64

1. increases glucose transport into skeletal muscle & adipose tissue 2. increases glycogen synthesis 3. decreases gluconeogenesis

Question 65

List the actions of insulin on fat metabolism (3)

Answer 65

1. promotes fatty acid and triglyceride synthesis by the liver 2. increases transport of fatty acids to triglycerides 3. maintains fat storage by inhibiting breakdown of stored triglycerides by adipose cell lipase

Question 66

List the actions of insulin on protein metabolism (3)

Answer 66

1. increases active transport of amino acids into cells 2. increases protein synthesis 3. decreases protein breakdown

Question 67

List the actions of glucagon on glucose metabolism (2)

Answer 67

1. promotes glycogen breakdown 2. increases gluconeogenesis

Question 68

List the action of glucagon on fat metabolism

Answer 68

activates adipose cell lipase, making increased amounts of fatty acids available to the body to use as energy

Question 69

List the action of glucagon on protein metabolism

Answer 69

increases amino acid uptake by liver cells & conversion to glucose by gluconeogenesis

Question 70

what is the difference between insulin vs glucagon in regards to balancing blood glucose?

Answer 70

Insulin is released when blood sugar is high to lower it.​ Glucagon is released when blood sugar is low to raise it.​

Question 71

when do... high insulin levels occur? low insulin levels? high glucagon levels?

Answer 71

High insulin levels → ab an hour after meals.​ Low insulin levels → occur during fasting (e.g., overnight).​ High glucagon levels → occur during fasting to help raise blood glucose levels.​

Question 72

what is the normal glucose level range?

Answer 72

70-100

Question 73

what is the prediabetic glucose level range?

Answer 73

101-125

Question 74

what is the glucose level for diabetics?

Answer 74

greater than 126

Question 75

what are the classifications of diabetes? (5)

Answer 75

Type 1 → 1A and 1B Type 2 Pre-diabetes Gestational Drug induced

Question 76

What is the difference between Type 1A and Type 1B diabetes?

Answer 76

Type 1A → autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells​ Type 1B → ​Idiopathic diabetes

Question 77

Women with gestational diabetes are at higher risk for developing what?

Answer 77

Type 2 Diabetes (however it is not a certainty)