Tutoring - Bio / Biochem Flashcards
Glycolysis totals
*Substrate Level Phosphorylation
2 Net ATP
2 NADH
Pyruvic processings
Pyruvic acid is prepared into Acetyl CoA so it can enter Karen’s (yields CO2 and NADH)
Krebs totals
8 NADH
6 CO2
2 ATP
2 FADH2
ETC
*Oxidative level phosphorylation
Total yield of cellular respiration = 36 ATP
Ethanol fermentation and Krebs cycle —>
CO2
Nucleosides
Adenine
Guanine
Thymine
Cytosine
AT. CG
RNA Properties
- Single stranded
- Uracil
- Ribose
DNA Properties
- Double stranded
- Thymine (methylated Uracil)
- Deoxyribose
Transcription
“Script” or “scribe”
Rewriting (from DNA to RNA)
You did not change languages (nucleotides)
Translation
Translate into new language from RNA (neucleotides) into proteins (amino acids)
Transcription
- one area of the DNA copied
- single stranded
- RNA polymerase
Replication
- all of it copied
- double stranded
- DNA polymerase
ORF
Open reading frame
Where translation reads START to END
Eukaryotic
= monocistronic
One ORF read as many times as necessary to make the same protein, then destroyed as a method of control of # of proteins
Prokaryotic
= polycistronic
Many ORF but the proteins that’ll be synthesized are related (all used for same function)
Sections in between ORF that say stop/start
HnRNA
Heteronuclear RNA
Eukaryotic precursor for mRNA
Immature mRNA
Gets processed w/ 5’ cap and 3’ poly- A tail (needs tail and cap because RNA in cytosine gets degraded b/c without them cytosol sees the RNA as a virus)
Prokaryotic Transcription
3 stages:
Initiation
Elongation
Termination
PRIBNOW BOX
*One type of RNA polymerase
Occurs in cytoplasm, no nucleus —> no need for processing —> ready to go
Translation starts WHILE transcription is ongoing
PRIBNOW BOX
Promoter sequence to start transcription
“Hey RNA polymerase, bind here!”
Eukaryotic Transcription
Must be processed before translation occurs
This prevents EXOnucleases in cytoplasm from digesting the mRNA
*3 types of RNA polymerases
Eukaryotic Transcription RNA Polymerases
“Are empty”
RNA Polymerase I = rRNA
RNA Polymerase II = mRNA
RNA Polymerase III = tRNA
- Unnecessary for some proteins
Splicing
Introns = intruding —> splice them out Exons = expressed and exit the nucleus to get translated
Alternative splicing
Various options/patterns
Where you splice depends on which proteins you want to form
Translation
Purpose is to create protein
tRNA shape
Clover
Anticodon
3 nucleotides COMPLEMENTARY to mRNA codon
Bottom of tRNA clover
Codon
3 nucleotides in a specific sequence that indicate for a specific amino acid
On mRNA strand where Anticodon on the tRNA is complementary to
Wobble hypothesis
Last of the 3 is flexible Allows for fewer tRNA 1 2 3 ABC ABD ABE
Energy to make a Protein
Thermodynamically unfavorable but kinetically slow —> eventually will die/slow down —> old age
Series of unfavorable Rxns forcing them to be favorable:
Hydrolyze 2 high energy phosphate bonds to get AA to stick to tRNA (unfavorable bond), it wants to break off —> energy released. This release come from the breaking of the aminoacyl—tRNA bond that drives peptide bond formation forward
The driving force for BOTH processes is
… the removal and subsequent hydrolysis of pyrophasephate from each amino acid added to the chain, w/ the existing chain acting as a nucleophile. The nitrogen of the last AA attacks the carbonyl carbon of the new AA and tRNA = leaving group
Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase
Enzyme specific to each AA —> Brings AA to tRNA
Goes and gets AA and brings it to tRNA taxi, tRNA taxi cab simply holds AA and brings it to the growing peptide/ribosome, then the growing peptide attacks AA and kicks off tRNA —> then settles in at end of growing peptide as the next AA in sequence
Prokaryotic ribosomes
Are odd
70s (2 subunits, small and large)
= 30s and 50s
Eukaryotic ribosomes
80s (2 subunits, small and large)
= 40s and 60s
APE sites
Aminoacyl-tRNA site = Acceptor Site
Peptidyl-tRNA site = Polymeration Site (growing site)
Exit site = where now empty tRNA sits before release from ribosome
Start Codons
AUG
Stop Codons
UAA
UAG
UGA
Monomers in Transcription
Nucleus Acids (for DNA / RNA)
Monomers in Translation
Amino Acids
Hershey-Chase
Is Genetic material DNA or Protein?
Radioactively labeled phosphorus vs. sulfur
Meselson-Stahl
What is DNA replication model?
SEMICONSERVATIVE
Grow in heavy vs light nitrogen
Nitrogen weights used —> N14, N15 —> Avg weight 14.5
Kingdoms
Eubacteria Archaebacteria Protists Fungi Plantar Animalia
Protists
Usually single celled
Fungi
Mostly multicellular
ABSORPTIVE HETEROTROPHS
Digest food outside
Plantae
Mostly multicellular
*Autotrophs
Animalia
Multicellular
*Heterotrophs
Symbiosis
- Mutualism
- Commensalism
- Parasitisim
Mutualism
Both benefit
Commensalism
One benefits
Other is neutral
Parasitism
One benefits
Other suffers
Vector
Carries the disease
Allowing it to transmit from one organism
Virus
All have same basic structure
Protein coat surrounding genetic material (RNA / DNA)
Virus general life cycle
Phase dNA tells cell to make more viruses, so many that cell lyses
Lytic cycle
Phase DNA tells cell to make more viruses, so many that cell lyses
Lysogenic cycle
Virus is latent, host cell isn’t hurt
Virus incorporates into cell chromosome and is replicated alongside host DNA
— Viral DNA passed on during cell division
— appropriate conditions (stress), virus excises from chromosome —> lytic —> kills host
Bacteriophage
Virus infrects bacteria
Bacteriophage structure
Head = Capsid Tail = Sheath + Tail fibers
Animal viruses
Super diverse
Double stranded
RNA / DNA
Example of Aminal Virus —> HIV
HIV attaches to receptors on host (CD4 helper T cells), enters via endcyotsis, reverse transcriptase (viral enzyme) converts viral RNA into DNA so it can incorporate w/ cell DNA, new viral particles leave via exocytosis —> so virus doesn’t always kill host
Bacteria
All prokaryotes
All single circular chromosome (some have EXTRA circles = plasmid)
MOST cell wall peptidoglycas, binary fission
Auto
Use CO2 as carbon source
Hetero
Use another source
Photo
Make food via photosynthesis
Chemo
Get energy from inorganic substance
Most pathogens
Chemoheterotrophs
—> parasites
—> saprobes - nutrients from waste/ org remains
Coccus
Circle
Baccilius
Bar (rod)
Spiral
Spiral
Gram stain +
One layer
Gram stain -
2 layer, inner = peptidoglycan
Since inner, it doesn’t get stained well
