Transformation and Change,1939-1964 - The Impact of WW2 on British Politics (complete); Flashcards
How did Winston Churchill become Prime minister?
-PM in 1939 Neville Chamberlain appointed Churchill to Admiralty
-May 1940; replaced Chamberlain as PM
What did Churchill do in government?
-Led National coalition gov, brought together politicians from all leading parties
-Proved durable & effective, certainly in military strategy & to extent in domestic affairs
Up to when was Churchill prime minister and what was his legacy?
-Until the 1945 election, where he was defeated
-Was hailed as saviour of nation, legacy remains as outstanding war time leader
Why was Chamberlain deemed a bad war leader and forced to resign?
-After disastrous Norwegian campaign in April 1940, PM Neville Chamberlain’s ability to conduct war was being seriously questioned
-On 7 May 1940, in debate in Parliament on Norwegian campaign former PM DLG spoke against Chamberlain stating that ‘there is nothing which can contribute more to victory than that he should sacrifice his office’
-Labour Party demanded his resignation
Conservative backbenchers refused to support Chamberlain unless he could gather enough support from other parties to form a National Gov
-Chamberlain reluctantly resigned; loathed prospect of war & was unsuited as a wartime leader
Who were the contenders to succeed Chamberlain and who was ultimately the one and why?
-Lord Halifax, Foreign Secretary & member of War Cabinet + Winston Churchill
-At the time, Halifax seemed more obvious choice; he was conventional where Churchill was controversial. As Foreign Secretary, he was familiar w/ German leadership in Berlin
-Churchill had been out of office for 10 years, after quarrelling w/ Baldwin & Chamberlain + was at odds w/ his party’s policies
-Halifax was preferred choice of Chamberlain, Labour & Liberal leaders Attlee + Sinclair & George VI, but Halifax appeared to recognise own limitations, suggested Churchill was better placed to form national wartime coalition
What was Churchill’s first task as PM and what strategy did he use and why?
-To form a new gov
-Given desperate situation unfolding across Channel, this needed to be a gov of national unity
-Although Chamberlain had resigned as PM, he remained leader of Conservative Party; gave Churchill opportunity to accept leadership & keep tight rein on his own party + allowed him to choose men from the Lib, Labour & Conservative parties, and personal appointees w/ experience outside Westminster, eg Lord Beaverbrook + William Beveridge
-Was tactful in his approach & correct in his procedures, but authoritative + determined to have own way
Who were the members of Churchill’s war cabinet?
-Churchill; PM of the wartime coalition gov from May 1940 until 1945
-Clement Attlee; acted as deputy PM to Churchill & conducted administration of domestic matters. Effective Cabinet chairman. Role raised his political stature & he became PM in 1945
-Arthur Greenwood; Attlee’s deputy, but dropped from War Cabinet in 1943 + took on job as Minister for Reconstruction
-Ernest Bevin; leader of Transport & General Workers’ Union. Opposition to both fascism & communism won Churchill’s admiration. Minister of Labour & National Service; instrumental in maximising economic output
-Anthony Eden; Foreign Secretary from 1935, but resigned in protest at
Chamberlain’s appeasement policy in 1938. Foreign Secretary again from 1940-45. Churchill singled him out as potential successor
-Sir John Anderson; Home Secretary in 1940, succeeded Wood as chancellor in 1943. Introduced Anderson air raid shelter, to be used in gardens
-Lord Beaverbrook; responsible for enormously influential Daily Express newspaper. Churchill recruited him into gov where as Minister of Aircraft Production he oversaw expansion of number of aeroplanes available to RAF
-Sir Kingsley Wood; Minister for Air from 1938-40 + chancellor from 1940-43. To pay for war he raised taxation, some of which was to be returned to taxpayers after war. He developed pay-as-you-earn system for income tax
Why did Churchill face a difficult situation in the early weeks of his premiership?
-By end of May, German armies were deep into N France
-The British Expeditionary Force was trapped on Channel coast near Dunkirk & hurried plans had to be made for 300,000+ men to be evacuated by sea
-The fall of France was only a matter of time; would bring forces of Nazi Germany within 20 miles of GB coast
-Invasion seemed imminent & GB stood alone, apart from support of distant empire
Why did Churchill’s handling of the crisis faced earn him universal respect?
-Basis of strength as leader was that he never faltered in conviction that GB would succeed
-In series of broadcasts to nation, he positioned himself as a man of the people. He roused Parliament & country w/ his great oratory, declaring: “I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears & sweat”
-Formed + held together key alliances betw GB, Russia & US. Even though he despised Communist regime in Russia, he made an ally out of Stalin, realising he’d be a main target for Hitler. Worked hard to secure US support, certain their involvement would seal allies’ victory
-Armed forces were subject to civilian political control, but Churchill insisted on personal involvement in all military decisions; led to fierce rows w/ military chiefs, but active role gave him overview that was ultimately beneficial to successful conduct of war
What were the main events of the war 1941-45?
-Dec 1941; USA joins war after Japanese attack on their naval base at Pearl Harbor & agress to help GB defeat Hitler in Europe
-1942-44; Battle of the Atlantic, initial German successes in sinking GB vessels are turned round
-1942-45; Large-scale bombing by RAF on German factories & towns, to degrade means of production + demoralise civilian population
-Oct 1942; GB defeat of Axis (German & Italian) troops at Battle of El Alamein in N Africa; US & GB forces push Axis troops out of N Africa
-Jan 1943; Churchill + Roosevelt meet at Casablanca & agree on unconditional German surrender only in event of German defeat
-July 1943; Allied attack on Sicily to open up new European front from south.
Hitler’s attack on Russia fails. Nov; Stalin, Churchill & Roosevelt meet at Tehran + agree to open second front in France
-June 1944; D-day landings, start of allied invasion of Western Europe
-1945; Allied advances on Germany. Feb; Stalin, Churchill & Roosevelt meet at Yalta to discuss peace plans. May; surrender of German forces
Why was Churchill still met with criticism despite his firm approach?
-From within Conservative Party
-Lord Halifax & supporters felt that w/ France on verge of collapse & much of the rest of Western Europe under German control, sensible policy would be to negotiate w/ Hitler + achieve a compromise peace
-Regarded Churchill’s speeches as emotional bravado & believed the danger of successful German invasion was v real
How did Churchill convince the country it was better to fight on?
-Measure of his self-confidence & courage that he convinced country it was better to fight on
-Had no faith in Hitler’s word & was hopeful that the US could be persuaded to support GB
-Rather than seek peace, Churchill put everything into organising military effort against Nazi Germany
-War turning to GB’s favour in 1942
How were plans to tackle Britain’s social problems already well advanced before the war ended?
-British public had stood firm & made great sacrifices in face of the enemy + it was politically expedient to offer hope of socially secure GB once war ended
-There was pressure for reform from outside Parliament too, eg in Feb 1941, TUC petitioned Ministry of Health about defects in national health insurance system
-Series of articles in press, discussions on radio, official reports & opinions expressed by leading churchmen all created demand for better post-war GB
In what ways did the war force change?
-Fear of mass bombing led to Emergency Hospital Scheme, giving state greater central control over hospitals + providing free treatment for bomb victims
-Rationing meant state provision of free milk & extra food resources for mothers + children
-Shared experience of danger encouraged more generous attitude towards social welfare; hated ‘means test’ abolished in 1941
-All 3 main political parties set up committees to examine key areas for reconstruction
How were plans and proposals made for a better Britain after the war?
-Betw 1942-45 series of reports were issued, most important of which was the Beveridge Report (1943), which laid out plan for universal social security & formed basis of Attlee post-war gov’s social reforms
-Economist J.M. Keynes put forward new ideas for avoiding inflation & unemployment
-Gov White Paper in May 1944, ‘Employment Policy’, committed future govs to maintenance of high & stable level of employment after war + post-war controls on troop demobilisation to avoid high levels of unemployment
Why did Churchill’s coalition government not succeed in everything?
-There were military disasters, eg humiliating surrender to Japanese in Singapore in 1942
-Occasional intense disagreements within Cabinet, & many criticisms of Churchill
-Opposition from independently-minded Labour MPs, eg Aneurin Bevan
-Biggest revolt was in support of backbench Labour motion critical of Gov’s negative reaction to Beveridge Report
-Churchill had to face down 1+ vote of no confidence proposed in House of Commons
-Behind wartime propaganda image of national unity there was frequent grumbling about gov errors & inefficiencies
How did Churchill’s coalition prove strong, stable and effective despite its issues?
-Reflected Churchill’s energy and charisma
-Didn’t split Conservative Party in the way DLG split Liberals in 1916
-One reason for this was absence of any major rival to Churchill & he successfully held together diff political parties within coalition; was clear about need for Labour & TU support, not only for political reasons, but to organise efficient war economy
-Many of Labour leadership, who were absorbed in gov work, came to admire Churchill & electoral truce was agreed betw them for duration of war
-Perhaps Churchills greatest contribution was ability to raise country’s morale at crucial momens & convince GB people they could defeat Hitler & win the war
What were the reasons for the Labour landslide in the 1945 general election?
-As war continued, Labour’s strength in gov increased
-By 1945, it held 27 posts, mainly concerned w/ Home Front, where it dominated social & economic affairs
-Experience of gov & being in public eye were to be key factors in its election victory in the general election of July 1945
-Labour was seen as having made big contribution to success of war effort, but was not blamed for disasters of war
-By contrast, popular opinion was ready to blame Conservatives for unemployment & depression of inter-war years, failure to prevent Second World War & how unprepared country was when it came
Why was a general election called in 1945?
-Churchill wanted to continue wartime coalition until war against Japan had ended, but w/ ending of the war in Europe in May 1945, some of Labour leadership was adamant that election should be held straight away; hadn’t been one for 10 years
-Plus, it was predicted war against Japan might continue for another 18 months
-Labour leader Attlee agreed to continue coalition until October at latest, but Churchill cut through posturing & on 23 May formally ended wartime coalition but remained as head of a ‘caretaker’ gov until election in July
What was the expected result for the 1945 election and what actually happened?
-Seemed advantage was on Conservative side; could capitalise on Churchill’s victory & national prestige before post-war problems emerged
-But, they were mistaken. They had misread the mood of the people
-Both Labour & Conservatives had 600+ candidates & Libs 300+. There was an exceptionally large turnout of 73.3% of the electorate
-Labour had overwhelming majority, receiving 47.8% of total votes cast
-Clement Attlee became PM & his gov remained in power until 1951. He gathered around him a solid but strong-minded group of men, several of whom had served in wartime coalition, to form his Cabinet. Ernest Bevin was Foreign Secretary, Herbert Morrison was Leader of House of Commons, Hugh Dalton was Chancellor of Exchequer & Stafford Cripps was President of Board of Trade
What were the effects of the 1945 general election results?
-Represented turning point in GB politics
-Came as bitter disappointment to man who had won the war, Churchill, & was difficult to comprehend for GB’s wartime allies
-Labour victory meant they, for the very first time, form a gov w/ overall majority. Labour MPs outnumbered Conservative opponents by almost 2:1 in House of Commons
-For a party that’d suffered deep divisions & disastrous electoral defeat in 1931 + managed to win only 154 seats in previous election in 1935, it was an astonishing comeback
Why was popular opinion a reason for the Labour victory in 1945?
-Significant left-wing shift occurred during war
-In fact, electoral fortunes of Labour Party were already improving before war. By late 1930s, Labour showed noticeable signs of having recovered from disaster of 1931
-Opinion polls by 1941 showed increasing popular support for Labour & 1943+ polls consistently showed a 10-20% Labour lead over Conservatives
Why was the war a reason for the Labour victory in 1945?
-Memories of 1930s. Ironically, in 1945 Conservatives paid price for their sweeping electoral successes in 1931 & 1935
-In 1945 many voters blamed Conservatives for failings of 1930s; not only unemployment + social deprivation, but failure of policy of appeasement to prevent another war, just 20 years after the WW1 which was to be war to end all wars
-Inadequacies in GB’s defences, revealed when war began, were another point of criticism
-Labour’s electoral propaganda played on these negative memories and the need to ensure they never occurred again.
How were the blurs of class divisions a reason for the Labour victory in 1945?
-The social mobility caused by the war meant that some of those for whom 1930s had been period of affluence were brought into contact w/ those for whom 1930s had been decade of poverty & despair
-Such experiences led to feeling among some middle-class voters that things had to change after war, w/ no return to divisions of 1930s
-There was a desire among many for more equal society, which it was felt Labour was more likely to support
Why was Labour’s reputation a reason for their victory in 1945?
-Labour politicians had played key role in the war coalition, esp on Home Front
-Work of Attlee as deputy PM, Ernest Bevin as Minister of Labour & Herbert Morrison as Home Secretary kept Labour’s leaders in forefront of voters’ minds throughout war; by 1945 they were well known
-Voters felt that Labour had good programme & leaders to carry it out
-20% of electors were voting for first time; most chose Labour, as did many troops returning home from war
What did the 1945 victory mean for Labour and why?
-Was the culmination of a 50-year struggle to win overall majority in Commons
-This meant that for the first time in power they were in a position to carry out their ideology
-The Labour Party’s 1945 election manifesto ‘Let us face the future’ gave a clear indication of Labour’s thinking & kind of politics party wished to pursue if it won
What were Labour’s main aims for their government and why?
-1; carry out nationalisation
-2; establish welfare state by introducing comprehensive welfare provision
-3; set up a national health service
-Were both ideological & practical
-State control of economy wouldn’t only carry out principles of Clause Four (nationalisation) of Labour’s constitution, but also ensure national efficiency
-W/ nationalisation, state would be able to control essential industries, so enabling it to plan the economy & ensure full employment. With these, it would then be possible to make Labour’s social ideals a reality
Why did nationalisation become possible for Labour to pursue?
-6 years of total war had created widespread belief in advantages of state planning, ownership & control
-These factors made nationalisation of industry politically possible in way it couldn’t have been before
-Aim behind nationalisation was to enable Gov to gain ownership of ‘commanding heights of the economy’; key industries in this respect were coal mining, steel production & railways
-By 1945, nationalisation was no longer alien concept, as state had already nationalised key parts of GB industry during war
-After war, not only traditional Labour supporters but many in middle classes, even some in business, believed nationalisation of at least some of industries was desirable
What was the support & opposition to the nationalisation policy?
-Little opposition to nationalisation of coal mining & railways
-Civil aviation had been closely associated w/ state since 1920s & Bank of England had been under state control, in effect, since its formation in 1694. -There was strong opposition to nationalisation of steel production & road transport + when Conservatives returned to power in 1951, one of their first acts was to denationalise those industries
-In late 1940s mood of country was such that Labour programme of nationalisation was largely accepted, though there was much debate about high cost of such extensive policy
