Social Changes and Divisions 1939-64; (complete) Flashcards
Why is it difficult to reach a definitive judgement about the impact of WW2 on the British people?
-Social history of war was millions of individual experiences
-Attempt to reach balanced overall conclusion will= contradictions & exceptions
-Many people had lives changed by war via death of a loved one, injury, loss of home/possessions but many were left unscathed
-There’s a belief that the deprivations & hardships endured & shared created sense of unity, made people stronger + more resilient
Why was there debate around to what extent WW2 broke down class barriers, increased equality in Britain?
-Claimed that there was a fundamental shift in public attitudes, demanding greater fairness in society + this shift proved lasting
-Argued there was post-war consensus after 1945 influencing policies of all major parties towards classless societies
-Can be argued the ideas about equality merely dented class divisions, but didn’t break them & social revolution due to impact of war was only temporary anyway
Why was evacuation cited as something that brought change to social attitudes?
-Forcibly blurred boundaries of class distinction
-Bought home to ‘comfortable classes’ extent of poverty in inner-city areas
-Caused many to accept need for public policy to make provision for basic standard of welfare for nations children, support poorer families
Why did the extension of rationing contribute to Britain becoming a more egalitarian society?
-Everyone had to join queues to ‘spend’ their coupons
-However it was always easier for the monied classes to circumvent system
-Once rationing ended, sense of all classes being in the same boat evaporated
How did the Labour Party benefit from WW2?
-Labour politicians were seen to have made immense political contribution to wartime coalition gov
-Were able to shake off image of being unpatriotic grown up after WW1
-Proved themselves to be reliable & effective, closely associated w/ image of popular domestic policies
How did WW2 change people’s attitudes towards the government?
-People were readier to accept planning & gov intervention
-Approach to building more equal society; strong feeling Britain should look to future where hardships & poverty suffered by many in 1930s should never return
What led to austerity and what was it?
-This characterised normal everyday life in post-war GB
-Aim was to get GB back on feet after destruction & disruption of WW2
-Attlee Lab gov swept power after 1945, had task of rebuilding GB
-To overcome major economic issues of balance of payments deficit, gov cut imports
-Effects of this & continuation of rationing & restrictions on reconstruction programme led to austerity
Why did the dockers strike in 1945 cause public furore?
-Most families were worried about having enough food to keep everyone from being hungry
-Dockers strike threatened already limited supply of food coming into country; there was little public sympathy for strikers
What was the 1946 ‘housewives revolt’ and its impact?
-Happened when bacon, poultry & egg rations were cut further
-Protests were so vociferous the Minister of Food backtracked, allowed re-import of dried eggs
-Bananas imported following month, reserved for under-18s, for first time in 6 years
What did the British Medical Association express concerns about?
That the type of food available wasn’t sufficiently appetising, left people hungry
What kind of mass rules and regulations were put in place and what was the impact of this?
-Anything from accessing rations, using public transport, forming orderly queue for cinema tickets
-Encouraged unedifying bullying by petty officials in uniform
-People fed up w/ austerity GB
-Rationing ushered in black market & ‘spiv’; man relied upon to circumvent rationing, make profit on extra goods he supplied
-Incidents of burglaries and vandalism fuelled public anxiety
Who claimed credit for the rising economic prosperity of the 1950s and why?
-Harold MacMillan addressed audience in 1957 saying “Let’s be frank about it ; most of the people have never had it so good”
-It was a reference to rising living standards and affluence in 50s
-He claimed the credit, declaring “luxuries of rich have become necessities of the poor”
When and how did rationing and austerity end?
-Austerity ended w/ election of Cons gov in 1955, replaced by spectacular economic boom transforming family life
-Rationing was over by 1954, post-war restrictions of Attlee gov were withdrawn, income tax reduced
What were some consumer goods that symbolised affluence?
-Motor car; by 1960 there were 3m+. Majority of fam vehicles were small family cars like Morris Minor/Ford Poplar
-At cost of approx £550, ordinary consumer could sign hire-purchase agreement to pay for ‘necessary luxury’
-Plenty of credit available, consumer goods like record players were bought on the HP/never-never; once one item was paid down, a newer model replaced it
What was the biggest expenditure for any family and what could this involve?
-To buy a house
-Gov oversaw building of 1/4m houses/yr in early 1950s, mainly for rent
-Private contractors were building houses for sale to those who could afford them
-Modest 3 bed semi-detached home was £1655 in Oxfordshire, 1953; decent wage would be approx £1000/yr
-As long as man had steady wage, building societies provided long-term mortgages
-New homes=new furniture, stream-lined Scandinavian G-plan was in fashion, w/ contemporary look + fitted kitchen
What was considered the epitome of affluence?
Own a house in a ‘classless suburbia’, w/ neatly mowed lawn front & back, garage for family car
Was affluence universally experienced by the British population?
-Was enjoyed by considerable proportion of society
-However, when council estates were built, despite having basic amenities few had garages (assumption that motor car was still luxury for less well-off
-Still 1.8m in inner-city slums, still section of society trapped in never-ending cycle of poverty
How did consumerism rise after WW2? + examples
-50s saw surge in consumer goods; TVs, washing machines, fridges, new furniture bought on hire purchase
-1945; people could buy their own house w/ mortgage, most wired for electricity
-Family status measured by # of gadgets owned
-Advertising on TV; ITV launch age of commercial broadcasting in 1955, people accustomed to glossy adverts at 15m intervals
What was the experience of women during WW2?
-Involved women in almost every aspect, except armed combat
-Individual experiences diff; war liberating for some, for others bringing exhaustion, hardship, misery
-More opportunities to be independent, earn more money
-Rarely paid more than 60-70% man’s wage + other discrimination
What was the stance on married women in work?
-Many employers frowned upon married women working
-Widespread disapproval of working women
-Ministry of Labour’s social survey Women and Industry (1948) made it clear for women not to combine work and marriage; trend saw general approval from both men & women
What was expected of women after WW2?
-To retreat into domesticity, look after their men & children
-Little encouragement to develop their independence/place value in economic contribution in society
-1951; BBC put out statement radio news bulletins were only to be read by men
How was the so-called marriage bar being lifted?
-Teaching profession was opened to married women in 1944
-1946; women in civil service could keep their job if they got married, for the first time: was followed by Bank of England in 1949 but Barclays Bank could only be persuaded in 1961
-Range of jobs for women in institutions generally carried low status & pay
Why was it claimed that the war created a ‘sexual revolution’?
-Moral constraints loosened by circumstances of war, sexual relationships flourished between young service men & women living away from home for the first time
-Marriages broke under strain of husbands being on duty overseas for prolonged periods
-Lonely housewives sometimes formed liaisons w/ other men
How did the divorce rate change from 1944-1947?
1944- 12,240
1947- 60,190
What did greater sexual freedom and easier access to methods of birth control allow for women?
-To plan smaller families
-Their health wasn’t compromised by constant childbirth
-New modern houses were smaller, easier to run w/ aid of new domestic appliances
-Greater freedom & easier to have a job + run home
How did the 1950s bring about change but also continuity for the role of women?
-New post-war housing, w/ bright new kitchens, gadgets taking over household chores & convenience food galore revolutionised women’s lives
-1951; 1 in 5 women went out to work, 1957; 1 in 3
-Majority of households still traditional, w/ man as head + breadwinner
What was the new generation of women in the mid-1960s like?
-Better educated, w/ more opportunities to go to uni & pursue careers
-Able to challenge outdated assumptions about women’s capabilities, put women on more equal footing w/ men
What were children like in the 1950s?
-Absence of commercialism of childhood
-Children attended school from 5 to 15, didn’t have burden of work of earlier generations
-Educational opportunities weren’t appreciated by many youngsters, not everyone wanted to stay in school; many wanted a job, have their own money & gain independence. Natural inclination was to disregard influence & advice of older generation
What were the reasons for the changing position of youth?
-Gradual improvement in health of nation over previous century; children maturing physically much more quickly, reaching adolescence earlier
-New influence from America; cult of teenager. American pop music, film idols, fashion, glamour, slang had significant influence on youth culture, commercialised teenager
-Affluent society meant teenagers had more money to spend. Teens who left school at 15, generally from WC backgrounds, soon found jobs, set trends in clothes fashion + spent money on records, cosmetics, bikes
What sub-groups were popular amongst teenagers?
-The Teds (Teddy Boys); mainly WC teenage youths dressed in particular fashion, adopted aggressive & challenging attitudes to adult convention + respectable behaviour. Influenced by Marlon Brando 1954 On The Waterfront film. Liked pop music, jive dancing, often caused trouble hanging around streets on Saturday nights
-These were superseded by more aggressive Mods & Rockers; had particular emphasis on ‘style’. Rockers rode heavy motor bikes, wore leathers, were into rock n roll music. Mods rode scooters, wore smart suits, preferred sophisticated pop music. Rockers saw mods as wimps, who looked down in rockers for being scruffy & old-fashioned
-Numerous clashes between mods & rockers in early 60s; largest was rioting in E & S coast resorts of Clacton, Margate, Brighton: early 1964
How did immigration patterns change after WW2 and why?
-Inward migration to GB increased significantly
-1948; about 250,000 immigrants arrived in GB from West Indies & other parts of New Commonwealth
-Those from British West Indies were guaranteed British citizenship by the Nationality Act of 1948
What were the different opinions on immigration during this time?
-GB’s imperial history linked nation closely to multi-racial people of Commonwealth, ties were strengthened by war
-Queen Elizabeth’s 1953 coronation; evident enthusiasm for Commonwealth ideal
-There were fears of GB having to absorb too many citizens at once
-New Commonwealth immigrants who followed in wake of West Indian migrants who arrived on Empire Windrush, 1948, were both a cause of social change & tensions
-Authorities regarded immigration as economically desirable, hoped social tensions would ease gradually over time
-Immigrants filled many necessary but unpopular low-wage jobs; many had skills not utilised
What were the immigration statistics like?
-1958; approx 210,000 Commonwealth immigrants settled in GB, 75% male, working to support families back home
-Largest # from West Indies, though # from India & Pakistan rising
What were examples of racist events immigrants experienced?
-In urban areas where new arrivals were concentrated, there were instances of friction & resentment against immigrants
-Discredited leaders of GB fascism, Oswald Mosley tried to use any disturbances to exploit immigration issue by printing thousands of racist leaflets on behalf of his union movement
-1958; serious race riots in Notting Hill. Proceeded by weekend of violence in Nottingham; gangs of white youths. Police unprepared & it was several days before they controlled riots
-Public anxieties on immigrant crimes aroused by unfair, inaccurate reports of criminal behaviour. In fact, GB crime was mostly home-grown
What was the Commonwealth Act of 1962 and what led to it?
-Limited immigration via system of work permits
-Opposed by Labour; but didn’t repeal it after winning 1964 election
-Led to by rate of New Commonwealth immigration speeding up, by 1961 inward flow was 100,000/yr
