Social Movements and Policies 1851-86; (complete) Flashcards
What did the political dominance of Gladstone and Disraeli between 1866 and 1885 mean?
Years of strong government- reflected in quantity and range of legislation addressing social issues. However, it didn’t necessarily have an interest in the condition of the people at heart
What was ‘self-help’ and the significance of it at the time?
As part of the ‘laissez-faire’ philosophy, there was an emphasis on the individual. The book ‘Self-help’ by Samuel Smiles (1859) outlined the belief that everyone should have opportunity to fulfil their potential but must take personal responsibility for their actions, work hard, and not blame other circumstances for mishaps.
It epitomised the mid 19th century Victorian values of striving to improve oneself + change for the better
Key virtues for success: duty, strength of character, thrift and self-help.
Why was the period considered a time of increasing prosperity?
Was a clear belief in progress through freedom and individual effort (laissez fair/self-help) linked to improving standards of living in public health + hygiene + education provision. To make progress in both material & moral terms was to be admired.
What was the reverse side to the increasing prosperity from self-help/laissez faire?
Society looked down on individuals who fell into poverty; were often regarded as feckless, careless and lazy rather than victims of circumstance + in need of support. People thought the best way to address social evils was minimum state interference and reliance on middle-class philanthropists
Why was the principle of individualism & laissez faire being questioned?
By 1870, government, society and economic framework of GB were becoming more complex. The gov began to accept necessity of introducing laws to regulate society and address basic needs of its citizens
How was trade unionism revived in the 1850s?
New unions (craft/model unions)= small, operated among skilled workers e.g engineers & boilermakers. Leaders were restrained & respectable; regarded themselves as elite of working classes, sought to improve working conditions via self-help/improvement/education + reasoned negotiation w/ employers.
Functioned as Friendly Societies (organisations among workers enabling them to make savings as insurance for accidents/becoming member of society) setting up benefit schemes. Subscription rate relatively high to highlight superiority over unskilled workers.
Why were the model unions supported by Liberal politicians + why did they support the Lib Party?
Politicians like Gladstone respected them due to their preference of settling disputes via peaceful bargaining rather than striking. These workers were the ones benefiting from the franchise extension,1867. By supporting the Liberal party, unions hoped it would strengthen their legal position as it wasn’t clearly defined + funds weren’t protected by law.
How was the Trade Union Congress (TUC) formed?
Regional trade councils, e.g London Trades Council (provide opportunities for unions to exchange ideas), encourage setting up of national organisation for the unions.
So, the first Trade Union Congress was held in Manchester, 1868- to put pressure on gov to give trade unions legal recognition. Leaders were keen to cooperate w/ liberal gov + promote members as hard-working, respectable and God-fearing. As such, the TUC became an annual event in London from 1871
What trade union legislation was passed by Gladstone’s gov and why did this result in working class anger?
New model unions w/ bargaining power from the Second Reform Act 1867, pressed the gov for a Royal Commission of Inquiry into trade unionism to define their legal position. 2 acts were passed:
- Trade Union Act of 1871; legal right of unions to hold property & funds + protected by law + right to strike
- Criminal Law Amendment Act; immediately after TU act. Made picketing illegal. So, unions were legalised but almost any action they took to achieve their illegal.
What was the impact of the 1871 Trade Unions Act?
Historians identified this as Gladstone’s most serious misjudgment; cost him working class support in 1874 election. An explanation of why 2 such contrasting laws were passed was Gladstone’s strong religious faith abhorring violence
What was the Conspiracy & Protection of Property Act of 1875?
After Gladstone’s defeat, Disraeli + Conservatives came into power and claimed interest in the needs of the working class. Act was passed to replace Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1871.
-It did much to strengthen the position of trade unions & encourage their growth.
-Altered conspiracy laws so unions couldn’t be prosecuted for doing something collectively that wouldn’t be condemned from a single person.
-Legalised picketing (so striking also)
Why was there a need for educational reform?
Schools had been run mainly by Church groups on inadequate gov grant since 1830s. There weren’t enough schools for the growing population & expanding towns. After extension of franchise in 1867, it was in the govt best interest to have an educated electorate. It would bring economic advantage in the long run by creating workers w/ technical & vocational skills and so assist GB in competitiveness internationally
What was the Forster’s Education Act of 1870 and its significance?
Made provision for elementary schools to be set up across the country (“Board Schools”)
They were run by the state, rather than religious organisations- due to issues with religious education, so an amendment excluded denominational religious teaching.
The Church of England continued to run its own schools
Act was important as it moved away from laissez faire in gov social legislation, acknowledged role of state in educating children
What was the Sandon’s Education Act of 1876 and its significance?
Even though the Forster’s Education Act gave school places to all children, it wasn’t necessarily free & many labouring couldn’t afford to send their children to school. Attendance in rural schools were poor as kids took time off for the harvest, etc.
The act, introduced by the conservative gov, set up attendance committees but stopped short at making attendance compulsory. Children couldn’t get a job unless they had an attendance certificate so parents made sure kids went to school on a regular basis
What did the administrative reforms put forward by the Liberals from 1870-73 aim to do and why was there controversy?
Reforms were carried out in the army & civil service. Created greater efficiency but were controversial since established advancement by merit and not family connection/wealth + ill-feeling to gov from trad whigs. The reforms illustrate Gladstone’s adherence to self-help.
What reforms were put in place within the civil service?
Principle of entry by competitive examination was introduced. This bought in candidates with intellect & ability and improved professionalism + efficiency at minimal cost to the gov. Allowed bright young men from ordinary backgrounds the chance of a steady career, with good prospects & comfy living standard. Won approval of many middle-class liberals.
Why did the army need reform and what was put into place?
Was riddled with incompetency & inefficiency. System was based on privilege & seen as preserve of aristocracy. Commander in chief was appointed via royal patronage & often lacked military skill & intelligence. The Crimean War (1854-56) underlined need to improve competency & professionalism of army
The secretary of war established political control of army by making the commander in chief answerable to gov. Abolition of system of purchase of commissions presented a difficult change in society, was regarded as attacking fundamental belief in society (right by birth & wealth to privilege). After furious opposition, reforms were passed whereby selection &promotion of officers was based on merit.
What was the Licensing Act of 1872 and why was there backlash to it?
Aimed to improve moral fibre of ordinary man. Mild measure- gave magistrates power to issue licenses to publicans, fix opening & closing hours and prohibit publicans from tempering w/ beer. Satisfied neither side oof the debate: temperance group thought it didn’t go far enough and beerage society felt it attacked their industry. It alienated breweries & distillers who in future voted conservative and gave generously to Conservative Party funds
What were pressure groups and how did they bring about social reform?
Pressure groups like the Temperance society, focusing on a single issue, or exceptional individuals like Lord Shaftesbury (1801- 85) . They were concerned with improving conditions in factories, achieved in the 1874/78 legislations. These worked to influence the government policy on issues important to them
What were some examples of pressure groups and their aims?
-The Health of Towns association (1839) & the Ladies’ sanitary reform association of Manchester & Salford (1862) sought to bring pressure to bring public health reform.
-Josephine Butler (1828-1906) establishes Ladies’ National Association for the Repeal of Contagious Diseases Act- concerned for the welfare of prostitutes
-Octavia Hill (1838-1912) campaigned for the provision of affordable houses for working people.
-The UK alliance, a temperance society, sought to outlaw sale of alcohol.
What were some equality laws introduced/suggested to do with the rights of women?
-John Stuart Mill introduced amendment to 1867 Reform Bill to allow women parliamentary vote. It was defeated, but 73 MPs voted for it
-1869; Gladstone agrees to principle of female emancipation by giving women ratepayers the vote in local elections.
-Married Women’s Property Act (1870) gave married women legal status & allowed them to keep proportion of own earnings
-Education Act (1870) had same provisions for girls as boys to attend elementary school
-Age of consent rises from 12-13 then 16 in 1885
What was the Artisans Dwelling Act of 1875 and its legacy?
-Introduced by conservatives
-Too many labouring people lived in jerry-built houses, which were unsanitary, overcrowded and reason for disease.
-Richard Cross (Home Secretary) wanted to improve housing in industrial slums without setting precedent that it was the govts duty to give “good and habitable dwellings”.
-The act gave local authority power to purchase, clear and redevelop slums
-Lack of compulsory purchase order weakened the act, many councils ignore it, with exception of BHam under Chamberlain.
-Established principle of state intervention, marked beginning of local authority housing
What was the Public Health act of 1875 and why was it criticised?
-Pulled together all existing sanitary legislation, up to then had fallen short of tackling current health problems
-Measure of consolidation, not innovation building on 1866 & 72 legislation
-Laid down minimum standards of drainage, sewage disposal & refuse & Medical Officer of Health was charged with reporting of all infectious diseases
-Public works established in most districts to replace private water companies & sellers
-Criticism from supporters of laissez-faire
What employment legislation was introduced?
-Employers and Workmen Act of 1875 introduced contract of service giving employers terms on par with employers. Major step in labour law reform
-Factory legislation 1874 + 78 was a consolidation of previous acts, set code of regulations for conditions in factories. Reduction in hours for women, young people. Other industries bought in line with textile industry. Established principle of state offering protection to industrial workers
What was the Merchant Seamens’ Act of 1876 and why was it needed?
-Prior there was no legislation to protect seamen from atrocious living conditions on board ship and conditions of employment at sea, or controlling overloading of ships which endangered seamen’s lives. There was no merchants union. Royal Commission of Inquiry into conditions at sea coincided with campaign of MP Samuel Plimsoll, who spoke out against ‘coffin ships’.
-Act introduced regular inspections of ships by the Board of Trade, better accommodation for sailors on board and introduced the Plimsoll Line, outside of every ship’s hull, saying if a ship was overloaded and safe to go to sea. This wasn’t compulsory but remains one of the great landmarks of state intervention helping to secure safety of a particular group of workers
How effective were Gladstone’s social reforms from 1868 to 1886?
-The legislation programme from 1851-1886 was immense and addressed crucial social and political issues. It was a response to various interests in Parliament and pressure groups outside.
-Gladstone’s policies were passed based on what he believed was morally right, it was debated whether these reforms catered to the needs of society or his own beliefs
-Even though Gladstone passed laws to overcome injustice in the army/civil service, Gladstone and the Liberals antagonised almost every group of former supporters- like the working class and trade unions.
-However, the reforms were still innovative and far-reaching.
-The education reforms bought little immediate benefit to the working classes children but improved literacy levels and in time led to wider access to higher education.
-Trade Unions Act gave status to the unions, allowing them to give support to the Labour movement
Overall Gladstone’s reforms challenged the notion of privilege, encouraged meritocracy and underlined the principle of equality in a just society
How effective was Disraeli’s social reform legislation from 1868-1880?
-Responsible for number of radical social reform
-Debate on sincerity in calling for reform; could’ve been a dig at Gladstone for his reforms being focused on poor administration not improving conditions of working class, a way to get working-class votes or a way to outline the principle of his new Tory Democracy
-The working class ensured Disraeli’s electoral vote, who was able to show his party as having an appeal for the working class, land/property owners and businessmen
-There is evidence that Disraeli had no coherent programme of reform and much of the legislation was made as a result of pressure groups and Royal Commissions
How did Disraeli establish the idea of Tory democracy through his social reform?
-Reforms indicated awareness of needs of emergent working class; voice heard more often due to growing influence & strength of trade unions and improved education provision (both encouraged by Conservatives)
-Provisions of Public Health Act so practical lasted for 60 years
-Reforms gave credence to idea of Tory working-class man + state intervention expanded despite reactionary interests from party
-Wanted to gain/retain Tories affection for working class. By 1880, excitement for what Disraeli did for them was fading- belief of cynicism as he prioritised some measures more. Liberals then back to power
-Much legislation of the time was adoptive rather than compulsory so facilitated change not insisted on it; laissez-fare still prevalent, limited state intervention preferred.
