Social Policies 1886-1914; (complete) Flashcards
What did 1886 look like in terms of social reform?
Neither the Liberals or Conservatives had much to offer in terms of social reform
Why was there a process of social reform in 1886-1905?
Under mainly Conservative governments, various legislations were introduced that began a process of social reform, despite this not being the main priority of either Conservative leader, AJ Balfour or Lord Salisbury
When did the pace of social reform accelerate?
Following the Liberal victory in the 1906 election
What was the ideology that saw continuity for the government in the late nineteenth century, and what did this involve?
-Laissez faire
-Govs saw their role essentially as preserving law + order & safeguarding Britains security, rather than concerning themselves w/ peoples welfare & interfering in people’s lives
-Still belief that self-help, thrift, hard work would ensure decent living standard + that poverty was self-inflicted
-Voluntary groups were the ones designated to look after helpless members of society like young, old, sick
-There was an ‘unacceptable’ cost to reform & govs didn’t see it as their duty to raise taxes for improved quality of life
Why was the electorate increasing in size in 1886 significant?
-This altered its composition
-Nearly 3m new voters, mainly agricultural labourers & other poorly paid rural workers & welfare issues were high on their agenda
-It’d seem logical that to capture their vote would assure a majority for either party
What were Lord Salisbury’s views to do with social reform, how did this reflect in his government’s actions?
-Was known personally to dislike democracy & disapproved of too much eduction of the masses, disliked change
-Most of the legislation carried out by his gov was tidying up earlier acts & didn’t necessarily suggest a progressive gov was at work
-However, his domestic policies can be viewed in light of widening democracy
Government legislation 1886-1905 - housing; why was there a need for legislation?
-Dreadful slum dwellings were still to be found in many towns & cities
-Although urban improvements like constructing railways & municipal buildings led to some slum clearance, it reduced amount of cheap housing available for labouring classes
-Local councils unwilling to bear cost of new housing
Government legislation 1886-1905 - housing; what did the Working Class Dwellings Act of 1885 do?
Gave local councils opportunity to identify uninhabitable dwellings, replace the, w/ council-built houses
Government legislation 1886-1905 - housing; what did the Housing of the Working Class Act of 1890 do?
-Extended earlier act (working class dwelling) with a provision for councils to compulsory purchase land for housing
-Councils borrowed from the Public Works Loan Commissioners & then charged working class tenants rent at market rates
Government legislation 1886-1905 - housing; how effective were the housing legislations?
-Bought general improvement in health & well-being; according to Venus returns there was less overcrowding
-Requirement for all new dwellings to have running water & lavatory (at least outside) meant it was easier to have better personal hygiene + less infectious diseases
Government legislation 1886-1905 - Public health; what was the 1891 Public Health (London) Act and its provisions?
-Earlier gov public health legislation had excluded London
-The act rectified this, consolidated & improved on earlier measures
-Eg appointment of local public health officials was already compulsory but the act stipulated qualifications necessary for job & contributed in long term to establishment of public service professionals w/ standard qualification
-Allowed officials to take action to remove nuisances, eg collecting foul sewage where it could endanger health/ordering clearance of overcrowded dwelling house or dangerous buildings
Government legislation 1886-1905 - Public health; how did public health look in the mid-1890s and why?
Provisions from earlier legislations meant that most towns & cities had access to clean, constant water supply & adequate + safe drainage and sewage systems
Government legislation 1886-1905 - Working conditions; why were working conditions in need of reform?
-Working conditions were appalling for many labouring men & women few safety regulations & no compensation for industrial accidents
-Wages were low, esp for women & could be docked for minor misdemeanours like lateness
-Royal Commission on Labour of 1892-95 reported almost 50% of labouring classes earned 15 shillings (75p) a week, while surviving rate was £1 & 5 shilling (£1.25)
Government legislation 1886-1905 - Working conditions; what was Salisbury’s government’s opinion on working condition legislation?
-Findings of Royal Commission on Labour were largely ignored by Salisbury’s gov
-Reluctance to intervene beyond legislation to protect children
-Was a firm believer in self-help
Government legislation 1886-1905 - Working conditions; despite Salisbury’s stance, what Act was passed + its provisions?
-Factory and Workshops Act of 1891
-Consolidated earlier factory legislation, put end to children under 11 working & set a max of 12hrs/day for women workers
Government legislation 1886-1905 - Working conditions; what did the absence of trade union legislations result in?
Poor working conditions & low wages continued, particularly in sweated industries & among female workers
Government legislation 1886-1905 - Working conditions; what were the reforms introduced for agricultural workers and their provisions?
-The Allotment and Smallholdings Acts of 1887 & 1892; attempt to set up agricultural labourers w/ own plot of land so they could make a living. Achieved little as didn’t give local authorities compulsory purchasing powers but did indicate gov awareness of high rural unemployment
-Agricultural Ratings Act, 1896; reduced rateable value of agricultural land. Passed off as a measure to help farmers, as agriculture was still in the doldrums. However, the landowners failed to pass on the saving so it was they who benefitted, not tenant farmer
Government legislation 1886-1905 - education; what general education reforms were introduced?
-Board of Education established
-Fees for children attending Board schools were abolished in 1891, making elementary education free
-Responsibility given to local councils for technical education (area where GB lagged behind industrial rival Germany)
-Government grants given to universities for the first time
Government legislation 1886-1905 - education; what was the 1892 Public Libraries Act and what did it make possible?
-Allowed local bodies to set up public libraries
-Made possible widespread free access to reading material for many families who couldn’t afford to buy books
-Provided great stimulus to improved literacy levels
Government legislation 1886-1905 - education; what was Balfour’s Education Act, 1902 and why was it significant?
-Important piece of legislation, established state responsibility for secondary education
-Old School Boards (set up by Forester’s education Act,1870) were abolished & responsibility for financing + running of secondary schools transferred to 140 newly created Local Education Authorities (LEAs), run by county & borough councils
-Creator was Robert Morant, a civil servant at the Board of Education; was strongly in favour of secondary education & advocated that running of all state schools should be coordinated & brought into new pattern of local gov—> LEAs could build new secondary schools, though not all did so
Local initiatives 1886-1905; what was local government reforms like?
-Lack of coherence in local gov provision betw urban & rural areas
-Most towns were able to set up their own councils, elected by ratepayers, by virtue of the Municipal Corporations Act of 1882. In rural areas magistrates, members of local hierarchy, took responsibility for local administrations via quarter sessions
-Boards of Guardians & School Boards provided other local services
-But, there were so many boards dealing w/ diff issues that system had become chaotic & inefficient
Local initiatives 1886-1905; what were the provisions of the Local Government Act, 1888?
-Old boards were abolished & new county councils created
-London treated as a separate county run by a new organisation; London County Council (LCC)
-New county councils given power to levy rates, maintain roads & bridges, organise poor relief
-Councils elected by ratepayers; gave newly enfranchised votes (1884) a degree of control over local affairs & gave Londoners power to control affairs
Local initiatives 1886-1905; who passed the Local Government Act of 1894 and what were its provisions?
-Liberals
-Organised counties into smaller, more manageable units; rural district councils & urban district councils
-Enabled small rural communities, w/ a pop. of 300+ , to set up elected parish councils under umbrella of newly formed rural district councils (RDCs)
-Towns traditionally ran by a mayor & Corporation were formed into urban district councils (UDCs)
-Women became eligible to vote for parish councils
Local initiatives 1886-1905; what were the varying impacts of the local government reforms?
- Local authorities responded differently to central gov legislation, some still choosing to ignore it, often on the grounds of Keeping down the rates bill
-But, others passed by-laws to improve lighting & pavements, create public amenities, eg parks, libraries; all beneficial to environment & community
-The reform led to some local authorities developing ‘civic pride’; eg Joseph Chamberlain in BHam being instrumental in revitalising the city by improving public services & laying groundwork for ambitious town improvement scheme. By 1890s, BHam was cleaner & healthier, its centre enhanced by public buildings. It had the reputation of the most efficiently run city globally
-Philanthropic employers created housing developments for workers, eg Lever Brothers at Port Sunlight (1888) & Cadbury Bournville (1895)
Extent of legislation 1886-1905; what was the overall legislative record of the Conservatives?
-Appeared more sympathetic to the needs of ordinary people than expected
-However, the growing gap between the wealth of the middle & upper classes + poverty of many working families was ignored
Extent of legislation 1886-1905; to what extend did quality of life improve?
-Gradual improvement in public health & urban living conditions were better as direct result of pure water supplies & proper sewage disposal; could be seen in the drop in deaths from dangerous diseases (eg typhus, typhoid, cholera and smallpox, which was eradicated) & overall fall in deaths
-Better housing & improved public health contributed
-Reduction in working hours = more opportunities for leisure, but many men and women still suffered appalling conditions
-Some conditions were tackled, but only in 1906 by the new liberal gov
Extent of legislation 1886-1905; to what extend did education improve?
-Access to education made a huge, positive impact on life chances of younger generation, though many of them were called in WW1
-Children from working & middle class families could now benefit from education behind primary level for a small weekly fee
-There was much opposition to the measure, as money from local rates was also to be used for Church Schools; introduced in reform bill but still retained measure of independence. This bought protest from Nonconformists who believed Church schools were being advantaged by bill
-Ultimately, its success was in establishing a national system of secondary education, but fees meant children of poorer workers were still excluded
Extent of legislation 1886-1905; to what extent did the Conservative government legislations dress welfare?
-Failed to address many welfare concerns of the working classes
-WC methods of attracting government attention by holding mass meetings & demonstrations met w/ swift & firm response by largely reactionary gov
-But, rapid spread of TUs among unskilled workforce & appearance of socialism were making govs more aware that complex social issues, legacy of earlier industrialisation + urbanisation required some degrees of state intervention
Taxation by 1914- how was tariff reform like up to 1916?
-Policy of free trade rather than protection had been pursued by Libs & Cons govs for the latter half of the 19th cent. Meanwhile, other industrialising nations like Germany imposed tariffs on imports; making GB goods more expensive and less desirable
-Many manufacturers argued for GB to impose protective tariffs on goods from abroad, to ensure fair trade
-1902 budget introduced duty of 1 shilling (5p) on imported wheat to help cover Boer War cost
-1903; Joseph Chamberlain led a campaign for tariff reform to extend import duties. Argued if duty was raised on foreign imports, additional income could be used to finance pensions & health insurance. His proposals split Balfour’s cabinet & Chamberlain resigned
Taxation by 1914- tariff reform up to 1916; what was the Liberals argument on food import tariffs?
Argued if they were introduced, proves would rise; worry for most working families as standard loaf of bread would either be more expensive or the same price but smaller
Taxation by 1914- People’s Budget 1909; what was the main focus and intention?
Main focus of Chancellor DLG budget was to raise funds to pay for Lib welfare reforms. He believed increasing indirect tax (ie tax on goods via tariff reform) would fall on the poor & would be self-defeating
Intention of tax budget was thus to raise gov revenue by direct taxation like income tax not tariff reform
Taxation by 1914- People’s Budget 1909; what were the conditions of the People’s Budget of 1909?
-Raised income tax from 1s (5p) to 1s 2d (6p)in pound on those earning £3000/yr & introduced super tax on annual incomes of £5000+
-Introduced road fund licence & petrol duties for the first time. Few but wealthiest owners cars
-Increased death duties, taxed alcohol & tobacco, most controversially introduced 20% tax on profits made on land sale
Taxation by 1914- People’s Budget 1909; what were the reactions to the People’s Budget, 1909 and what did this result in?
-Strong opposition from Middle & Upper Classes, who’d be most affected so displeased many Conservatives
Attitudes still persisted among many that poverty was self-imposed
-House of Lords react to what they perceived as attack on their landed wealth & rejected budget; DLG was scathing w/ criticism, ‘Should 500 men, chosen accidentally, override the judgements of millions of people who are engaged in the industry which makes the wealth of this country?’
Welfare reforms 1886-1905; what was welfare reform and poverty relief like in general from 1886 to 1905?
-Little concerted progress in welfare reform betw 1886 - 1905 & issue of poverty wasn’t addressed in any significant way by either party
-Poor law → only public system of poor relief & still based on deterring people from asking fer help rather than state recognising need to provide welfare in certain circumstances
-There was still something shameful in poverty
Welfare reforms 1886-1905; what were the reasons for a demand in welfare reforms?
-Royal Commission on Aged Poor (1895) called for some form of old age pensions & end to workhouse as main system of poor relief
-Radical Conservative Joseph Chamberlain failed to interest Conservatives in idea of old age pensions
-3% of population were in receipt of poor relief, yet surveys of Booth & Rowntree, in 1891 & 1901 suggested 30% were living in poverty
-There was still lack of understanding of real causes of poverty; ↓ wages, unemployment, old age, ignorance, ill health
-There was progress in the reduction of infectious diseases, ↓ in death rate but ill health was still huge issue to poor
-Poor physical condition of young WC recruits who came forward for Boer War (1899-1902) generated shame & concern, couldn’t be ignored by Gov
Welfare reforms 1886-1905; what was the Workmen’s Compensation Act of 1897 and its advantages/disadvantages?
-Done by Joseph Chamberlain
-Gov took responsibility for paying compensation to injured workman
-Previous attempts had tried & failed to put liability for accidents at work on employers
-However, too many exceptions were included
-Still, the act set an important future precedent
Welfare reforms 1906-14; what were the reasons and aims of the Liberals’ social/welfare reforms?
-Attempted to deal w/ issues of poverty bought to public attention by publication of a number of key reports that couldn’t be ignored
-Greater awareness of such info as a result of better education & wider access to newspapers
-Time of growing international tension betw European nations, Gov believed that if GB was to maintain strong military rep, measures were needed to improve the state of health & nations children
-Social reform could be justified on grounds of preserving national pride & efficiency
-Much of reforms appear to be based on political expediency rather than improve WC conditions. However, most Libs and certainly New Libs believed some state action was needed to achieve minimum acceptable standards of living. To ‘set a line below which we shall not allow people to live & labour’
Welfare reforms 1906-14- reforms for children; why were reforms needed?
Since education became compulsory, it was clear that children were coming to school hungry, sick and dirty
Welfare reforms 1906-14- reforms for children; what was the Provisions of Meals Act of 1906 and its disadvantage?
-Allowed local authorities to levy rate to pay for school meals for needy children
-But, many authorities failed tact until provision was made compulsory in 1914
Welfare reforms 1906-14- reforms for children; what was the provision of medical inspections in schools of 1907 and its disadvantage?
-Introduced to ensure children were healthy enough to benefit from schooling
-Most education authorities chose to ignore the clause until the act was tightened up in 1912 & additional gov grants were given to set up school clinics
Welfare reforms 1906-14- reforms for children; what were the provisions of the Children’s Charter Act of 1908 and why was it important?
-Brought together collection of measures to protect & decriminalise children
-Juvenile courts & borstals (custodial institutions for young offenders) were set up 50 children who faced court proceedings & detention weren’t mixed up w/ hardened adult criminals, who might have a corrupting influence on them
-Emphasis wasn’t on punishment, but rehabilitation of children back into society
-New penalties for ill-treatment of children
-Sale of cigarettes, tobacco and unseated alcohol (ie beer in jug) to under 16s banned
-Important in establishing new attitudes to welfare of children by state; became accepted that it was child’s right to receive the services & protection
Welfare reforms 1906-14- reforms for the elderly; what was the Old Age Pensions Act of 1908 and its advantages + criticisms?
-Provided non-contributory pension of 5 shillings/week for 70 + w/ annual income >£21, could be collected from local post office
-Main criticism → was insufficient to raise elderly person above poverty line
-Pension was given as a right, not charitable handout so removed stigma of applying for help under poor law system
-Non-contributory so no financial burden
-Established collectivist principle of state intervention in lives of elderly poor, using gov funds for relief
-Assumed people have saved something towards their old age
Welfare reforms 1906-14- reforms to safeguard workers; what was the Coal Mines Act of 1908 and its limitation?
Limited number of hours a miner could work underground in a day, but didn’t include considerable time spent getting to & from coal face
Welfare reforms 1906-14- reforms to safeguard workers; what was Churchill’s Trade Boards Act of 1909 and its limitation?
-Fixed minimum wages for various trades involved
-Another unprecedented intervention by gov but continued to exclude many trades
Welfare reforms 1906-14- reforms to safeguard workers; what was the Shops Act of 1911 and its limitation?
-Gave assistant a half day holiday a week
-Didn’t control max hours that could be worked
Welfare reforms 1906-14- reforms to safeguard workers; what was the benefits and criticisms of setting up labour exchange offices around the country?
-Practical innovation, exchanges advertised local job vacancies & after 1911 paid out unemployment benefits
-Existing practice of men standing outside a factory gate waiting to be taken on for casual work was inefficient but labour exchange would bring together worker & employer at one location
-Was criticised however as there was no requirement for unemployed to register & employers weren’t encouraged to use exchange. When they did, it was to find skilled rather than unskilled workers
Welfare reforms 1906-14; why was a Health insurance section of the National Insurance Act of 1911 created and what were its pluses/limitations?
-In interests of national efficiency & alarm at high incidence of tuberculosis among the WC, DLG drew up scheme whereby worker paid regular contribution, received measure of sickness benefit
-Compulsory scheme, provided health insurance for workers earning > £160 a year
-The deal was that worker would contribute 4d (d= old pence), employer 3d & state 2d to scheme, which would provide sickness benefit of 10 shillings/week for 13 weeks, w/ free medical attention & medicine
-Innovative, but limited as only catered for worker, not his family (apart from generous maternity benefit of 30 shillings
-Excluded majority of workforce & entitlement lasted only 26 weeks + no free hospital service
-Act didn’t create national health service, but did point future govs in that direction
Welfare reforms 1906-14; what were the objections to the health insurance scheme?
-DLG wanted to include widows & orphans, but objections came from insurance companies that already catered for those groups on private basis, wished to protect their business
-Their inclusion in administering final scheme (handled contributions) meant they could expand their business as long as they accepted state supervision
-The British Medical Council objected that scheme interfered w/ doctors’ independence.
-Laissez faire politicians argued it was wrong to force workers to part w/ some of their wages
Welfare reforms 1906-14; what were the provisions of the Health insurance section of the National Insurance Act of 1911 and what were its limitations?
-Compulsory scheme of unemployment insurance for workers in trades most affected by seasonal variations; shipbuilding, mechanical engineering, construction, iron founding & saw milling
-Run on same principle as health insurance w/ contributions from employer (2½d), employee (2½d) & state (3d)
-Benefit was 7 shillings/week for 25 weeks in 12 month period
-Scheme covered 2m+ workers but wasn’t comprehensive enough & there was no safety net when 25 week period was over
-Many felt that state contribution was too small
Assessment of welfare reforms by 1914; why is the success of the Liberal reforms a matter of debate among historians?
-The main objective of them was to alleviate poverty, but some argue that the measures had limited success
-Betw 1886-1914 the value of real wages rose v little
-The Poor Law w/ its workhouse system still remained, although its importance was diminishing
-Pension provision was regarded as inadequate & National Insurance Act wasn’t comprehensive enough; no inclusion of benefits for the v low paid agricultural workers, major issues of education & housing were ignored
-Some low paid workers could access free medical treatment but scheme excluded majority of working men
-There was no policy of full employment & inadequate relief via Poor Law system remained option for long-term unemployed + their families
Assessment of welfare reforms by 1914; why were the Liberal reforms a significant departure from earlier policies of minimum state interference?
-Setting up labour exchanges went against principles of market economy & laissez faire Liberalism
-It was the first time any gov had provided welfare benefits as a right, although this fell well short of creating a welfare state
-The concept that the wealthier members of society should contribute to welfare of the poorer was clearly applied in DLG’s budget, through raising taxes on high salaries, land & luxury items; established important model for future govs to follow
