Social Policies 1914-1939 (meant to be in prev section) (complete) Flashcards
Why was the Geddes Axe implemented and was it successful?
-To deal w/ sudden slump in 1921 at the end of the post-war boom, DLG’s coalition gov appointed Sir Eric Geddes to make cuts in gov spending
-Cuts were to be made in health, welfare, plans for building new council houses, & further education
-Cuts were known as Geddes Axe & although they were successful in reducing gov spending, they increased unemployment & affected very areas in which reform was needed
Why were several housing acts passed during this period?
-To address acute housing shortage & promote slum clearance
-In 1918, there was a huge demand for WC housing in towns throughout GB -Before war, house building was carried out by private contractors. As war had brought building industry to a standstill, after it ended the country faced an acute housing shortage
-Building costs had risen, there was a scarcity of materials & men, making it impossible to build sufficient houses that could be afforded by average working family/soldiers returning from war
-‘Homes fit for Heroes’ was one of the slogans adopted by DLG as part of his promise to make post-war GB a better place to live in; reflected new social attitude that it was a national responsibility to ensure those who’d risked life & limb for their country’s freedom could enjoy security of having their own home
Why was the Increase of Rent and Mortgage Acts of 1915 implemented and what were its provisions?
-About 3/4 of the population lived in rented property w/ no redress against landlords who persistently overcharged for sub-standard accommodation
-These acts controlled amount by which rents could legally be raised, but also discouraged landlords from carrying out improvements
What were the provisions of the Addison Act (Housing and Town Planning Act) of 1919 and its limitations?
-Series of Housing Acts to encourage local authority involvement in building new houses & reducing overcrowding + slum dwelling
-Was crucial in establishing concept of local authority housing provision
-Work of Dr Christopher Addison, Minister for Health in post-war coalition
-Invested power in local authorities to carry out house-building programmes in their locality & promised gov subsidy of £260 for each house built
-Thinking behind subsidy was in effect spliting cost of house betw tenants (who paid rent), local rate payers & Treasury
-Councils had discretion to set rent level lower than recommended to help poorer families, but high cost of materials pushed up price. In reality, only better-off workers could afford to live in council houses
What were the provisions of the 1924 Wheatley Act and why was it important?
-Drawn up by Scottish MP & Minister of Health, John Wheatley
-Increased subsidy to local councils to encourage them to build houses to let to WC families
-Led to construction of about 1/2m new homes
-Stimulated house building & brought turning point in attitudes of politicians, who accepted it was a social duty to provide houses
-Was one of few pieces of legislation passed by first, short-lived Labour gov in 1924 & should be seen here in context of one of number of measures introduced by various inter-war govs to address severe shortage of housing
-Act stands out for its innovative approach in getting house-building programmes moving, although it still had failings
What was the Greenwood Housing Act of 1930 and why was it limited?
-To provide subsidies to local authorities for slum clearance & their replacement w/ new houses, but was suspended during worst period of Depression, as was Wheatley subsidy
-Gov has been criticised over its cautious policy at this time, as it was a missed opportunity to create thousands of desperately needed jobs
What was housing like between 1934-39?
-After 1934 there was an unprecedented boom in house-building until 1939, in which 700,000 council houses were built, but seemed moderate when measured against 2.5m built via private enterprise
-Still, 1m+ families were re-housed from slums in towns & cities
-Council houses were solid but all of standard design, created monotonous landscape
-Housing policy of inter-war years undoubtedly contributed to rise in living standards, but was helped by change in population trends; fall in birth rate manifested itself in smaller families
-Worst features of overcrowded, insanitary houses were disappearing, but in northern industrial towns eg South Shields, there were still many large families living in small terraced houses, where open range was used to heat water & cook meals, where there was no bathroom & only lavatory outside
What was government spending on housing between 1918-39?
£208 million
What was the educational system like up to 1914?
-In 1914, there was provision for full-time education for all children up to 12
-Balfour Education Act of 1902 established state responsibility for secondary education
-As a result, Local Education Authorities (LEAs) had been established, had power to build & maintain secondary schools
-There were also old endowed grammar schools, which became part of state secondary provision. These state-aided/ maintained secondary schools charged modest fee, but even so this excluded majority of children from WC families
Why was educational reform needed?
-Only small % of children, mainly lower middle-class, were able to continue in state secondary schools until 18
-So, although principle of ‘education for all’ was a nationally accepted policy by 1920s, in practice it didn’t offer all children equal opportunities
-Most WC children left school at 14 and started work
-There were regional discrepancies in extent of educational provision, particularly in rural areas.
-Class sizes varied in elementary schools; many had 50+ children to a class
How did the class system perpetuate in education?
-Children of wealthy & privileged attended independent fee-paying schools (of which most influential were public schools, eg Eton & Harrow), often boarding away from home
-From here, if they were boys (girls still not encouraged to pursue careers) they went to uni, into professions, into finance & banking/took senior position in family business
-Others went to Royal Military Academy at Sandhurst/Dartmouth Royal Naval College, for officer training, emerging w/ commissions in armed forces; or got plum jobs in foreign office/went into politics
-Grammar school education could lead to uni, but modern universities in towns eg Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham & Liverpool were considered socially inferior to old established universities eg Oxford & Cambridge
What did A.J.P Taylor say about the class system in education?
‘The two systems of education catered for different classes and provided education, different in quality and content, for rulers and the ruled.’
What was education legislation like from 1914-39?
-Apart from Fisher’s Education Act 1918, which extended national provision for full-time education for all children up to age 14 & Hadow Report of 1926, there weren’t other significant education reforms betw 1914-39
-Education ‘continued along unplanned lines’, w/ children of the wealthy continuing to receive superior education & system remaining ‘socially divisive’
What were the provisions of the Fisher’s Education Act of 1918?
-Raised school leaving age from 12 to 14
-There was increased provision of free secondary places for children from lower income families
-State scholarships introduced to provide opportunities for poorer children to go to uni
-Local authorities were encouraged to set up county colleges providing ‘day continuation classes’ (part-time education) for youngsters up to age 18 who had left school & were in work & nursery schools for 3-5-year-olds
What did a 1921 Education Act do?
Sanctioned Local Authority provision of free school meals to needy children
What did the Hadow Report of 1926 do for education?
-Suggested division in education provision at age 11 to distinguish betw primary & secondary education + setting up of 2 types of secondary school; grammar school to provide academic education & for majority the modern school, w/ leaving age of 15
-A national examination at age 11 was to be set to decide which type of secondary school was most suited to individual child
-Was implemented gradually in some ‘progressive’ areas from 1926-39
What was the most pressing issue for the government to deal with welfare wise?
Unemployment
What was the welfare legislation like up to 1914?
-Principle of gov-led unemployment insurance scheme had been accepted w/ 1911 Insurance Act; had been self supporting in that contributions paid in wouldn’t be less than benefits paid out
-At the time it only insured small % of workforce
What was the welfare legislation like from 1914-39?
-Vast majority passed was a series of updates to 1911 Insurance Act
-Each succeeding act was designed to deal further w/ mounting problems of hardship & poverty experienced by large numbers of people thrown out of work due to economic crisis + Depression
-This included providing benefits to munitions workers & in 1919, to former soldiers, even if they hadn’t contributed
-Number of non-insured industrial workers who lost their jobs w/ ending of gov war contracts were also included
-Adjustments had to be made in Poor Law legislation; finally abandoned in 1929 & new arrangements put in place to deal w/ appalling levels of poverty
-To enable benefit payments to be made from Unemployment Fund, Gov had to borrow money from the Treasury
What did extensions to the Insurance Act do?
-Brought about first instance in GB of ‘uncovenanted benefit’, or the ‘dole’, (small sum of money paid out by gov to unemployed who hadn’t made enough payments into unemployment insurance scheme) though it was introduced as a special case rather than general policy
-The concept was unpopular from the start; men wanted work not dole
-Caused resentment among insured workers who held on to their jobs & middle classes whose taxes were raised + who saw it as a sign of ‘national demoralisation’
What was the Unemployment Act of 1920 + its advantages/limitations?
-Paid out unemployment benefit of 15 shillings (75p) a week for max of 15 weeks in single year, as long as contribution had been made for minimum of 12 weeks
-Generous Act but made at a time when GB was enjoying a post-war boom
-Funds were to come from the Treasury rather than local gov budget
-Insurance was extended to everyone earning >£250 per annum but excluded domestic servants, farm labourers & civil servants
-Increased number of insured workers to 12m, lowered contribution ceiling for entitlement to benefit
-Agricultural workers brought into the scheme in 1936
Why was the Unemployed Workers’ Dependents Act of 1921 and what were its limitations + importance?
-In 1921 as boom turned to slump wages fell & unemployment rocketed
-Although benefit had been extended, it didn’t cover everyone. There were protests, demonstrations & hunger marches + some outbursts of violence
-Local authorities & Poor Law Guardians, who had to provide for uninsured unemployed, petitioned Gov to take greater responsibility
-This Act was a response to situation, but made such a meagre provision for the wives & children of unemployed so was loudly condemned as insulting the poor
-It was in fact an important first step towards concept of a family allowance
What did the Unemployment Insurance Act of 1922 introduce?
-Extended period benefts could be claimed, increased rate, but also contributions
-It was this Act that introduced concept of the dole as policy - i.e. benefit could be paid beyond period for which contributions had been made
What were the provisions of the 1924 Unemployment Act and why was it limited?
-Gov extended payment of benefit beyond official period & introduced ‘transitional payments’ (alternative term for uncovenanted benefits) for large families w/ young children
-Contingencies were introduced to deal w/ short-term problems
-As unemployment continued to spiral, gov Unemployment Fund ran into debt & called for re-think of how to deal w/ ongoing crisis
What was the 1927 Unemployment Insurance Act and its limitation?
-Introduced by then Minister of Health, Neville Chamberlain
-Tried different approach & reduced both benefit payments & workers’ contributions to Fund & extended period benefit could be claimed
-But, did nothing to overcome the drain on the Unemployment Fund
What were the provisions of the Local Government Act of 1929 and why was it important?
-Major piece of social legislation
-Sign of failure in gov policy was numbers still receiving outdoor relief via old Poor Law system, which itself was inadequately funded & had no uniform system of payments
-As part of Chamberlain’s Local Government Act, Board of Guardians that’d run Poor Law system since 1834 was abolished
-Was replaced by Public Assistance Committees (PACs), appointed by local councils, who’d in future deal w/ relief payments
-Act also gave local councils increased powers to deal w/ public health, hospitals, child welfare & town + country planning
What did the 1930 Unemployment Insurance Act introduce and why was it limited?
-Made it easier for claimants to receive benefits
-Also took account of men who’d never been able to work long enough to qualify for insurance scheme & enabled them to claim benefit on same terms as those who had contributed
-Unfortunately it was in introduced as financial crisis deepened, leaving Unemployment Fund in deficit & Labour gov deeply divided as to best policy to adopt
-As unemployment figures shot up to record 2 1/2m, benefit was cut by 10%
Who implemented the Unemployment Act of 1934 and what were its terms?
-National Gov that replaced Labour in 1933 adopted firmer policy, w/ particular problems of long-term unemployment in mind
-Act differentiated workers in terms of covenanted benefit & uncovenanted benefit, latter being subject to ‘means test’ & lower level of assistance
-Payments, financed by Treasury, were made by branches of new Unemployment Assistance Board (UAB) that replaced PABs
-The UAB set standard-rate payments & ended local anomalies
What was pension legislation like from 1914-39?
-In 1919, existing non-contributory old age pension was raised from 5 shillings to 10 shillings a week
-The Widows, Orphans and Old Age Contributory Pensions Act of 1925 was main piece of legislation regarding pensions & extended current provision. Was one of several major pieces of legislation introduced by Neville Chamberlain, as Minister of Health; provided pension for workers of 10 shillings a week betw ages of 65 & 70 and £1 a week for married couple. It gave widows security of 10 shillings a week & small weekly provision for each child. Scheme provided 7 shillings & 6 pence for orphans + was extended in 1937 to include self-employed workers
-Contributory old age pension scheme was considered by some to be of significant help for elderly but excluded almost 1/2 of age group. Non-contributory scheme was available at age of 70 & means-tested
What was national health like from 1914-39; positives + negatives?
-Limited state health scheme
-Health insurance entitled man to 15 shillings a week, w/ no allowance for dependants
-Public wards in hospitals usually available w/ charge for WC sick and ‘panel’ doctors offered free consultation
-Voluntary hospitals also provided for poor, but asked for contribution
-Those who had no means to pay had to rely on local Public Assistance Committee
-Most babies born at home w/ help of local midwife, whose credentials weren’t always sound
-Maternal mortality rose in 1930s, due to negligence & lack of antenatal care
-There was provision for free school meals for poor children, but conditions for qualification were unhelpful; available only w/ doctor’s certificate confirming malnutrition: case of waiting for children to be starving before giving them food
What were the government attitudes to welfare and how was this impactful?
-Official attitude often appeared unsympathetic & basically was that w/ state provision for unemployment + old age, poverty shouldn’t be an issue
-It seemed that few initiatives to assist those in poverty were implemented grudgingly on part of gov & local authorities + recipients felt stigmatised
-Fears were growing in official circles that welfare services were already too generous; ‘one must consider whether it is altogether an advantage for working people to have everything done for them from cradle to grave’ was the comment of one MP, Lord Scone
Why were the welfare reforms not advantageous for some families?
-In 1931, insured worker + family would receive 30 shillings a week. It wasn’t a living wage, but prevented people from starving
-Many families excluded from insurance schemes received less; these families were living in real poverty, on diet that fell below recommendations of British Medical Association’s minimum diet
-Government defended itself by claiming BMA’s standards were set too high
What did surveys say about the extent of poverty in the late 1920s/30s?
-Merseyside Survey of 1928-32 suggested 30% of WC families were living in poverty. In more prosperous Bristol figure was nearer 10%
-In 1936 Seebohm Rowntree updated his earlier survey of extent of poverty in York from 1900; discovered although standards had risen generally, there was still poverty & desperate cases of families for whom there was no safety net of welfare provisions. Eg, he cited: ‘One family of five, all out of work, was found to be living on bread & margarine alone for more than 1/2 of each week’
