Political Developments 1939-64 (complete); Flashcards
What were the results of the 1950 election and why?
-Attlee’s Labour gov returned to power w/ reduced majority
-There was a high turnout & Conservatives increased their share of vote
-Was partly result of 2 leading Conservatives, Lord Woolton & Rab Butler, who worked successfully to modernise party; attracted new group of talented young politicians, among them Harold Macmillan
Why wasn’t it immediately obvious in 1951 the Conservatives would have a period of dominance and what happened instead?
-Some Labour politicians felt convinced they’d soon return to power
-They regarded Churchill as a spent force & believed the Conservatives would struggle w/ intense economic difficulties GB faced
-But, betw 1951-57, Conservative govs headed in turn by Winston Churchill, Anthony Eden & Harold Macmillan established foundations of complete political dominance
-Labour wouldn’t return to power for another 13 years
What were the results of the 1951 election and why?
-Ironically, in 1951 Conservatives won election by narrowest of margins & in fact total Labour vote wasn’t only greater than that of Conservatives, it was largest they’d ever achieved
-It’s therefore conceivable that if Attlee delayed calling election for a few months, Labour could have stayed in power, because by that time economy, which had been in the doldrums post-war, was beginning to pick up
-But, Attlee was convinced he couldn’t continue lead gov that was exhausted by years of strain
-Conservative win was the start of over a decade of Conservative political dominance.
What were the reasons for Conservative dominance after 1951?
-Reorganisation of party machine after dislocation caused by war & shock defeat of 1945. Lord Woolton, as party chairman & Rab Butler, as policy expert, took leading roles in the process
-Infighting betw Bevanites (supporters of Bevan) & Gaitskellites (supporters of Hugh Gaitskell) that so badly weakened Labour in opposition
-Conservatives recognition of extent of public approval for legacy of Attlee govs which meant they were careful not to disturb it greatly
-1951 marked end of austerity & start of long postwar boom; perhaps most important reason
How was it shown that the Conservatives grasped the political realities of the time?
-There could be no outright rejection of the welfare state, nor total reversal of nationalisation
-Attitudes towards industry, TUs & social policy were going to have to be very diff from 1930s as experiences of war years had made people far more ready to accept need for state intervention & planning
-NHS had already assumed iconic status
-Partly by conviction & partly necessity, the gov accepted existence of what was later labelled as post-war consensus
Why is there not much evidence to classify Churchill as a great post-war leader?
-Churchill became PM of Conservative gov after 1951 election
-By then, he was 76 years old. His reputation as one of GB’s greatest PMs was established as result of his leading GB to victory during WW2
-But, in his second term of office, in 1953, Churchill suffered a stroke that left him w/ impaired speech
-Few people realised this at the time, those who did said nothing
-Day-to-day gov was often left in hands of Anthony Eden/Rab Butler, chancellor, & Harold Macmillan
-On the other hand, even as part-time, PM Churchill’s enormous prestige + political ability ensured that still wielded great deal of power & influence
Why was a general election called in 1955 and what were the results?
-After Churchill’s retirement, Eden called a general election in 1955, seeking his own mandate
-National press was overwhelmingly in favour of Conservatives. Most voters were happy w/ their rising living standards
-There was a public mood that might be described later as a feel good factor
-Eden was returned as PM w/ healthy Conservative majority of 70
-When Eden took office, although most of his previous experience was in foreign affairs, there was optimism about his progressive ideas in domestic affairs, his belief in a property-owning democracy & support for industrial partnership
What caused Anthony Eden’s downfall as PM and why?
-Suez crisis in 1956 (arose over control of Suez Canal, which provided faster shipping route from the west, via Mediterranean & Red Sea, to India + China; huge benefit for GB overseas trade. GB had become major shareholder in Suez in 1875, but in 1956, Egypt seized control & nationalised it)
-Dominated Eden’s premiership & caused his downfall
-His decision to launch military action against new nationalist leader of Egypt, Colonel Nasser, in Oct 1956, ended in disaster
-Anglo-French operation had to be called off in humiliating circumstances, w/ GB being pressurised to withdraw by US
-Eden suddenly seemed weak. He came under heavy attack from Labour & sections of national press
-In denying his collusion w/ France & Israel, Eden lied to the House of Commons and reputation was irreparably tarnished
-Eden never recovered from Suez & resigned in 1957
How did the Conservative Party recover from the Suez crisis with remarkable speed and continue its dominance after 1957?
-Harold Macmillan emerged as PM & party unity was restored
-Economic prosperity continued to gain approval from voters. In 1959, Macmillan, now nicknamed ‘Supermac’ (Play on comic hero Superman, intention was to criticise him for pretending to be something he wasn’t, but became identified w/ Macmillan’s success & period of prosperity in GB) led the Conservatives to another comfortable election victory
-Maintained its political dominance after 1957 supported by rising living standards
-Age of affluence was subject of Macmillan’s famous “never had it so good” speech
-Rise in consumer prosperity was key reason why Macmillan was able to win a massive victory in 1959 election
-At the same time, Labour’s internal divisions boiled over, making Gaitskell’s job as party leader almost impossible
Why was the concept of post-war political dominance hard to define?
-It was certainly not unanimous agreement
-There were several sharp policy differences betw parties, but there were broad lines of convergence
-Central issue was idea of the mixed economy
-Labour had already shown that it didn’t want all-out socialism and & accepted private enterprise & capitalist system; and while Conservatives were quick to denationalise steel industry & road transport in 1951, they left rest of Labour’s nationalisation scheme alone
What were the key themes of political consensus?
-Legacy of national unity & cooperation left by war; during war, coalition ministers from all major parties shared responsibility for handling domestic policies
-Idea of ‘big government’; many Conservatives were convinced of need for gov intervention in social & economic policies
-Importance of maintaining full employment; bitter memories of 1930s had been key issue in 1945 Labour landslide. Conservatives were v anxious to avoid being seen once again as party of mass unemployment
-Importance of the TUs; became more powerful & exerted more influence during war & as key industries eg coal & railways had been nationalised
-Conservatives wanted cooperative relationship w/ trade union barons
-Popularity of Labour’s welfare reforms, esp NHS; many Conservatives had changed their minds + were much less hostile to welfare state
-Political arithmetic in Parliament; Conservative majority was slender, leadership not in strong enough position to set about dismantling Attlee’s legacy, even if they wanted to. This realism didn’t please Conservatives faithful at grassroots level, many whom opposed consensus all along
What were Labour experiencing issues within the party?
-Clement Attlee continued as leader until 1955 but great wartime generation of Labour leaders was ageing & some were in poor health. Attlee’s most important lieutenant, Ernest Bevin, had died in 1951
-Party unity had been well maintained while in gov but there was a growing split in party, both in ideology + personalities
Why were there splits in the Labour Party?
-Key figures in split were Aneurin (Nye) Bevan & Hugh Gaitskell
-When Bevan resigned from gov in 1951 in protest against introduction of prescription charges, although he gained support of many Labour MPs & TUists he became political enemy of Gaitskell, who as Chancellor of Exchequer had pushed through charges
-Gaitskell was considered by most people in party to be logical choice to succeed Attlee as leader when time came
-Clash betw Bevanites & Gaitskellites didn’t reach climax until later, but seriously harmed effectiveness of Labour’s opposition to Conservative gov
Why did the Suez Crisis not help the Labour Party’s prospects?
In 1956, Labour appeared to be on attack
-Conservative gov was in difficulty over Suez crisis & Gaitskell seemed likely to benefit from disgrace of Eden over lying to Commons & so boost Labour’s prospects in next general election
-If election had taken place early in 1957, this might have happened
-The Suez affair, however, didn’t split Conservatives. New leader, Harold Macmillan, quickly re-established party unity & proved himself to be commanding PM
-Labour opposition had few targets to hit. At the same time maintaining party unity was increasingly difficult for Gaitskell
What was an issue for Gaitskell in the Labour Party and was this resolved?
-He was always associated w/ right wing of Labour & regarded w/ suspicion by Labour left
-Disagreements & personal feuds betw Gaitskellites + Bevanites became almost permanent feature of Labour in opposition after 1951
-Some Bevanites rejoined mainstream of party, including young Harold Wilson, who became Gaitskell’s shadow chancellor
-Fault line dividing party was papered over, rather than bridged
What was the 1959 election like for Labour and why?
-Entered election campaign wi/ some optimism
-Gaitskell was a confident & effective campaigner, promoting moderate policies that Labour thought would be popular w/ voters
-Extent of crushing defeat for Labour was a genuine surprise + great disappointment
In 1952, Britain had carried out its first tests of the atomic bomb, in the Pacific Ocean. It had been planned during a Labour government and executed tya Conservative government, in a cloak of secrecy. As technology advanced, the more powerful hydrogen bomb was tested in 1957, at the moment when the controversy over Britain’s foreign policy regarding Suez was at its height.
The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) was formed in 1958.
Why did splits in the Labour Party widen after their 1959 election defeat?
-Divisions over GB’s nuclear weapons programme
-Growing opposition to party leadership from TUs
Why was the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) formed in 1958?
-In 1952, GB had carried out its first tests of the atomic bomb, in the Pacific Ocean
-It’d been planned during Labour gov & executed by Conservative gov, in a cloak of secrecy
-As technology advanced, the more powerful hydrogen bomb was tested in 1957, at moment when controversy over GB’s foreign policy regarding Suez was at its height
-CND was formed in 1958
How influential were the CND?
-CND rapidly became most powerful pressure group in GB
-Was backed by many intellectuals & mobilised many middle-class protesters to demand GB should adopt policy of unilateral nuclear disarmament
-Thousands of people took part in demonstration at weapons research base at Aldermaston in Berkshire in 1958 & 59
-CND’s ‘unilateralism’ became powerful magnet for anti-gov protest; in some respects it was almost substitute for opposition in Parliament, which was so weak at the time
How did the CND affect the Labour Party?
-Many Labour left-wingers joined in on CND protests
-Links betw CND & Labour left may have turned away some voters from Labour in 1959 election
How did the trade unions start to challenge Labour leadership?
-Until late 1950s, unions had been content because as was almost full employment, & in any case the leaders were essentially moderates
-In 1956, however, a left-winger, Frank Cousins, became leader of one of the most powerful unions, the Transport & General Workers Union (TGWU)
-Cousins then led fierce opposition to Gaitskell over GB’s nuclear weapons
What were examples of Labour’s future party direction being debated at annual party conferences?
-1960 Scarborough conference became legendary in Labour’s history due to Gaitskell’s emotional speech, after defeatover nuclear disarmament, where he promised to ‘fight & fight again to save the party we love’
-1959 conference at Blackpool was perhaps equally important as it was this year that Labour missed opportunity to modernise. Was held just before general election; Gaitskell put forward idea of abolishing Clause Four (nationalisation) of party constitution
-It was clear that opposition from left wing & some union leaders would be fierce. Gaitskell backed down w/out putting it to the vote; may have been construed as weakness, but issue would have split party
Why was Labour’s political position slowly improving after 1960?
-Cultural shift in the country that made public opinion less comfortable w/ affluence & more critical of gov
-Shift was symbolised in print by rise of satirical journal ‘Private Eye’ & on TV by popularity of ‘That Was The Week That Was’
-Some ‘Supermac’ magic seemed to be wearing off; Gov had to deal w/ unexpected political problems & difficulties of balance of payments + over-heated economy
-When Gaitskell died suddenly in 1963, successor Harold Wilson took up leadership at time when Labour’s electoral prospects were greatly improved
How and why were Britain’s attitudes beginning to shift away from a deferential & conformist society in 1950?
-It was easy to recognise person’s social class by way they dressed/way they spoke
-Class loyalties were very strong, particularly within political parties
-By late 1950s, there were signs of shift in attitudes, hinting at gradual breakdown of old social restrictions & loss of deference
-Suez crisis of 1956 exposed blatant lying + manipulation by Gov
-Rise of CND from 1958 encouraged tendency to challenge authority
-Perhaps above all, new trends in culture & media opened way for more individualist + less conformist society, which was less willing to follow lead set by GB’s Establishment
What was the idea of the Establishment and who did it include?
-Referred to informal networks that connected social & political elites
-There was perception of privileged people (overwhelmingly men) who were inside charmed circle & had influence + ‘knew the people that mattered’
-Included aristocracy, High Court judges & barristers, civil service mandarins + diplomats, Anglican Church bishops & senior officers in armed forces
-Most were v well-off, but wealth was less important than family background & connections
-Natural progression of Establishment figures was from most exclusive private boarding schools (referred to as public schools, eg Eton & Harrow), to most prestigious colleges at Oxford/Cambridge, then into position of power & influence
How did the Labour Party oppose the Establishment and challenge the class system?
-First PM to break this convention was Harold Wilson, who won scholarship to his local grammar school, then went to Oxford Uni
-Left-wingers in Labour movement long battled against class system
-They had wanted Attlee government to abolish private schools, along w/ House of Lords
-Moderates believed in opening up route to upper levels of society to make it a meritocracy, esp by reforming education system
-It was among the middle classes that this change was most marked, & many of most scathing attacks on Establishment came from people w/ same education + background as those who were their targets
How were the attitudes against a class-conscious/deferential society become more widespread?
-Mocking humour of ‘satire boom’ showed dramatic decline of deference towards those in authority
-One event in 1963 symbolised shift in attitude towards class + privilege that was taking place
-Profumo Affair was a political scandal that brought down a Cabinet minister & rocked MacMillan gov + Establishment. It was also a barometer of social change. Press became noticeably less deferential + more intrusive. Prev tactics used by govs to prevent publication of sensitive/embarrassing info no longer worked
What was the Profumo Affair and its impact?
-John Profumo, Defence Secretary, was caught in a sex scandal that centred on affair he was having w/ a young model, Christine Keeler, who was also sleeping w/ a Soviet spy called Yevgeny Ivanov
-This raised questions about possible leaks of Cold War secrets
-Profumo lied about involvement, both to Parliament & PM + was forced to resign in disgrace. Affair weakened Macmillan’s gov
-In a sense Profumo Affair was about politics, but almost as much importance was what it revealed about GB’s changing society
-Security aspects weren’t v serious; provided ideal excuse for popular press to go after every salacious detail of sexual behaviour of those involved
-Keeler & her friend Mandy Rice-Davies, who was involved in scandal, became celebrities
What were the results of the 1964 general election and what did it represent?
-Was close-run
-Despite problems affecting Conservatives; resignation of Macmillan in 1963, & low public approval for his successor, Sir Alec Douglas-Home, Labour squeezed to victory by only 3 seats
-Labour victory, small though it was, represented important breakthrough for Labour movement
-Electorate were disillusioned w/ Conservatives after run of scandals betw 1962-63
What were the reasons for Labour being able to win the 1964 election
-There was sense of a power vacuum after Macmillan had gone & doubts about process of choosing his successor. Alec Douglas-Home reflected elitist ‘Establishment’ character of Conservatives
-There was a mood swing in population that brought growing impatience w/ old Establishment & real desire for generational change
-Support for idea of Labour gov had been growing
-Harold Wilson was a strong political campaigner, confident in handling media & more focused + succinct than Gaitskell
-In any event tension betw Bevanites & Gaitskellites was over, as both men were dead
-Labour was able to exploit powerful public mood that it was time for change & it was worth risk to ‘go w/ Labour’. The Labour slogan ‘13 years of Tory misrule’ proved extremely effective
