Topic 9: Infectious Disease and Phytomedicines Flashcards
Human and Microbial Evolution
- humans and microbes evolve in response to each other
- microbial evolution is much faster than human evolution
- human evolution is much more complex than microbial evolution
Human Genetic Adaptations That Protect Against Malaria
- 7% of humans = 400 million people
- in at least 25% of these 400 million people the consumption of certain foods, herbs, and medicinal plants enhances the protection against malaria
Hematological Adaptations to Plasmodium Parasite that Causes Malaria
- G6PD (glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase)
- sickle cell disease
- thalassemias
Sickle Cell Disease
- foods, herbs, medicinal plants can influence sickle cell disease in humans
- consumption of certain foods may reduce the risk of Plasmodium falciparum malaria and influence the gene frequency for sickle cell within the population
Manihot esculeneta (Overview)
- in Euphorbiaceae
- common name: cassava, manihot
- geography: native to amazon basin, south america
- plant part used: root, leaves
- ethnomedical use: roots and leaves eaten as food and to treat malaria
- active compounds: cyanides and metabolic metabolites thiocyanate and cyanate
Manihot esculenta
- cyanide and metabolites thiocyanate and cyanate may directly interact with and adversely effect Plasmodium survival and antigenicity
- low dietary organic cyanogen intakes lead to high regional Hgb S and higher mean prevalence clinical falciparum malaria
- high dietary organic cyanogen intakes lead to lower regional Hgb S and lower mean prevalence of clinical falciparum
Anti-malarial Medicines
Cinchona officinalis C. officinalis, var. calisaya Cinchona ledgeriana -plant family: Rubiaceae -common names: quina, cinchona, calisaya bark, Jesuits; bark, yellow bark, LEdger bark, crown bark, Loxa bark -geography: native to south america, introduced into africa andasia -habitat/habit: forest trees, shrubs -plant parts used: stembark, root -ethnomedical use: fever
Cinchona spp. (Malaria tx)
- active compounds: quinine, quinidine, cinchonidine, cinchonine
- chemical class: alkaloids
- chemical derivatives: chloroquine, mefloquine
- mechanism of action: antiplasmodial
- modern medical use: treatment of malaria
Cinchona officinalis and C. ledgeriana
- mechanisms of action: antiplasmodial (quinine, quinidine, cinchonidine, cinchonine) and cardiac antiarrhythmic (quinidine)
- modern medical uses: malaria (quinine, quinidine, cinchonidine, cindhonine), cardiac arrhythmias (quinidine), rheumatoid arthritis (hydroxycholorquine), nocturnal recumbancy leg muscle cramps (quinine sulfate)
Artemisia annua
- in Asteraceae
- geography: native china, vietnam
- ethnomedical use: plant leaves tx malaria
- compound: artemisinin
- derivatives of artemisinin: artemether, artesunate
- mechanism of action: antiplasmodial
- leaf extract used to treat malaria for thousands of years in china and vietnam
- molecules isolated from Artemisia annua: artemisinin and artemether
Anthelminthic
-anti-intestinal worms Artemisia maritima, A. cina, Artemisia spp. -plant family: Asteraceae -common name: wormseed -ethnomedical use: anthelminthic -active component: santonin -mechanism of action: anthelminthic -therapeutic use: ascaris worm intestinal infections
Vernonia amygdalina
- “bitter leaf”
- leafy green garden vegetable in west africa
- one of hte most common medicinal platns to treat malaria in west africa
- observations of selective consumption by primates
- demonstrate anti-malarial activity
Bitter Medicinal Plants/Herbs
- many of the medicinal plants/herbs and plant foods used to treat malaria are bitter to the taste
- bitter medicinal and food plants are commonly used for their anti-microbial qualities
- the greatest diversity of the PTC bitter taste gene exists in sub-Saharan africa where seven different forms have been identified
Human Evolutionary Response to Malaria
- genes affecting red blood cell structure (e.g., sickle cell or thalassemia)
- genes affecting bitter taste sensation
- selective ingestion of specific plant foods/herbs/medicines
Plasmodium Response to Medicines
- Plasmodium has effectively developed resistance to single molecule medicines (e.g., chloroquine) that have been used to treat malaria
- hypothesis: Plasmodium/microbes have difficulty developing resistance to plant foods and plant medicines that contain a large number of related, but different molecules
Human Immunity to Malaria
-infected humans develop antibodies that can provide protection against malaria for up to 5 years
Berberis vulgaris, B. aquafolium, B. spp.
- plant family: Berberidaceeae
- common names/geography: barberry in Europe (B. vulgaris) and oregon berry in northwest USA (B. aquafolium)
- habitat: forests, open areas
- plant part used: bark of shrub
- ethnomedical use: dysentery, diarrhea, skin disease
- active compound: berberine
Berberis spp. and Berberine
therapeutic uses: -of bark extract of B. vulgaris and B. aquafolium and berberine molecule: bacillary dysentery Entamoeba histolytica dysentery Giardia lamblia diarrhea cholera AIDS related diarrhea -B. aquafolium bark extract topically tx psoriasis
Cinnamomum zeylanicum to Treat Helicopbacter pylori (Associated with Gastritis and Ulcers)
- common name: cinnamon
- origin: asian common spice in cooking
- bark extract takenorally to treat gastritis and stomach and duodenal ulcers by inhibiting the bacterium Helicobacter pylori which is associated with development of ulcers and gastritis
Hydrastis canadensis
- in Ranunculaceae
- common name: goldenseal
- geography: eastern north america
- habitat: perennial herb in rich forests
- plant parts used: rhizome, root
- cultural origins: multiple native amereican groups
- active components: rhizome herbal, hyrastine compound
- therapeutic use/mechanism of action: astringent and hemostatic (topical), antiinfective (oral and topical), strengthem mucosal membranes in upper respiratory tract
Allium sativum
- in Alliaceae
- common name: garlic
- ethnomedical uses: antimicrobial, antihyperlipidemic, aphrodisiac
- active components: garlic cloves
- therapeutic use/mechanism of action: antimicrobial, antihyperlipidemic
Zingiber officinalis (Upper Respiratory Viruses tx)
- common name: ginger
- origin: asia
- rhizome tuber taken orally or as a vapor to treat upper respiratory viruses
Sambucus nigra (Upper Respiratory Viruses tx)
- common name: elderberry
- origin: mediterranean region
- fruit and flower extracts taken orally to treat upper respiratory viruses
Panax ginseng (Upper Respiratory Viruses tx)
- common name: ginseng
- origin: china, korea
- rhizome extract taken orally to treat upper respiratory viruses
Echinacea spp. (Overview)
-in Asteraceae
-common names: echinacea, coneflower
Echinacea angustifolia (coneflower)
E. purpurea (purple coneflower)
E. pallida (narrow-leaved coneflower)
-geography: glasslands and open fields of great plains of US
-plant parts used: roots and/or aerial parts of herb
-cultural origins: american indians including sioux, pawnee, blackfoot
Echinacea spp. (Uses)
- in Asteraceae
- ethnomedical uses: infections, immunostimulant, respiratory infections, intestinal infections, urinary tract infections
- mechanisms of action: immunostimulation by increased leukocytes (WBCs), stimulate phagocytosis, increase cytokines in peripheral blood macrophages
- therapeutic use: immunostimulant, respiratory infections
Astragalus Influence on Immune Cells
- root from china
- immune cells lose ability to divide as they age because telomeres become progressively shorter, decreasing disease fighting ability
- Astragalus decreases telomere shortening
Uncaria tomentosa
- in Rubiaceae
- common names: una de gato, cat’s claw
- geographyL: amazon basin
- habitat/habit: rainforest vine
- paltn parts used: aerial parts
- ethnomedical uses: immunostimulant and viral infections
Croton lechleri
-in Euphobiaceae
-formulations:
SP-303 (crofelemer)
SB-300 = standardized extract of bark latex
-mechanism of actions: antidiarrhea antisecretory mechanism, antiherpes antiviral mechanism through interfering with replication of herpes virus
-human clinical studies: human studies in tx of diarrhea and herpes simplex
-modern medical uses: herpes simplex (applied topically)
Illicium verum
- common name: star anise
- origin: china and vietnam
- active compound: tamiflu
- tamiflu is synthetic analogue of molecule extracted from Illicium verum
- western medical use: taken orally or treat avian influenza
Melaleuca alternifolia
- in Myrtaceae tea tree oil
- plant family: Myrtaceae
- geographical origin: australia
- ethnomedical uses: topical antifungal, antivital, and antibacterial
Thumus vulgaris
- in Lamiaceae
- common name: thyme
- geography: mediterranean
- habitat/habit: herb in open areas
- plant parts used: leaves (thymol is main component)
- ethnomedical uses: expectorant, treating lung infections, bronchospasms, fungal infections
- therapeutic uses/mechanisms of action: antifungal (topical), antibacterial (oral and topical), expectorant (oral), bronchial antispasmodic (oral)
Senna (=Cassia) alata
- plant family: Fabaceae
- geographical origins: tropical america
- ethnobotanical uses: leaf extract applied topically to treat fungal skin infections
Fungal Dermatophytes Keratinous Infections
- pathogens: Trichophyton spp., Microsporum spp., Epidermophytum floccosum
- mode of transmission: associate with mior skin trauma and spoor skin hygiene, relateively low rate of person-person contagion except with occasional clustering of humans wtih Tinea capitis
- reservoirs: anthropophilic, geophilic, zoophilic
- pathophysiology: infect keratinous structures of the body and are usually restricted to stratum corneum layer
Insect Repellants
- pyrethrums, pyrethrines, permethrins from Chrusanthemum cinerariifolium from eruope repels mosquitoes and treats head lice
- lemon eucalyptus oil from Corymbia (=Eucalyptus) citriodora the lemon-scented gum from Australia repels mosquitoes
- neem extract from Azadirachta indica from India repels insects
Salycylic Acid from Filipendula ulmaria and Slix alba from Europe
applied topically to treat skin warts caused by papilloma virus and acne caused by bacteria
Cantharidin from Lytta vesicatoria (Spanish Fly From Europe)
applied topically to treat papilloma wart virus and molluscum contagiosum skin virus
Rhizome Resin and Podophyllotoxin from Podophyllum peltatum from North America
applied topically to treat genital papilloma wards = condylomata acuminata
