Topic 5: The Water Cycle and Water Insecurity COPY Flashcards

Question

what are the main physical factors that affect the drainage basin?

Answer 1

1) climate - precipitation (type, intensity, duration and amount) - temperature (climate zones) this affects vegetation type 2) Soils (determines amount of infiltration and throughflow and therefore type of vegetation) 3) vegetation cover (hot and wet = dense) - impact on amount of interception, infiltration and transpiration 4) geology (impact on subsurface processes such as percolation an groundwater flow and therefore on aquifers) - indirectly, geology affects soil formation 5) relief (topography) - impact amount of precipitation - slopes affect amount of runoff 6) antecedent soil conditions

Answer 2

- precipitation is the major input into any drainage basin system. it varies according to its time and space according to its type and intensity linked to climatic season and weather systems - the highest precipitation inputs into drainage basins are found in the tropics due to the ITCZ, the intense solar radiation fuels the convection off warm humid air, resulting in condensation and convectional rain, along the subtropical ridge - lowest precipitation levels found in stable areas of high atmospheric pressure such as Quillagua in the Atacame desert which has 0.2mm a year of rain - distribution of rain affected by continentality (distance from sea) as continental areas like the Gobi desert in Asia are from the moisture of maritime air masses - relief affects rain with which high levels of rain happening where prevailing winds are forced to rise over high altitudes, as air is forced over the higher ground it cools, causing moist air to condense and fall out as rainfall.

Answer 3

inter-tropical convergent zone, this is where the sun is directly overhead with low pressure - equator gets the most heating as the sun is directly overhead, more evaporation, more air rising, low pressure and high rainfall - high pressure sinks at 30º so air sinks creating high pressure - the ITCZ migrates north and south over the year as the earth tilts, creates a rain belt north and south of tropic, monsoon weather - area of low pressure where the trade winds meet

Answer 4

- rate of interception dependant on two physical factors: precipitation and vegetation - interception greatest when rain is lightest and of short duration as the dry leaves and stems have the greatest water storage capacity, if intensity increases then interception is less effective as more will drop off - denser types of vegetation such as coniferous forests intercept more water than sparser deciduous trees, especially in winter when deciduous lose their leaves

Answer 5

1) precipitation intensity - infiltration-excess overland flow will occur when rainfall intensity exceeds infiltration capacity, meaning that the water flows over the surface and infiltration is reduced 2) vegetation cover- roots help to break up the soil, increasing the infiltration rate 3) soil and rock type- infiltration rates will increase as porosity and permeability increase 4) water table depth- as the water table rises during prolonged rainfall the soil will become saturated, reducing infiltration 5) slope gradient- as gradient increases, more water will flow over the surface, reducing infiltration

Answer 6

saturated overland flow- when water accumulates in the soil until the water table reaches or ponds on the surface, forcing further rainwater to run off the surface infiltration-excess overland flow- occurs when the rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity, so excess water flows over the ground surface. it will go into river channels, increasing floods

Answer 7

where there are thin soils of moderate permeability. concavities near a stream or riverbank often have high moisture levels and may produce saturated overland flow early in a rainstorm cycle

Answer 8

the permeability of the rock and the angle of the rock strata as a steeper gradient will allow gravity to operate more effectively - the rate of P and GWF increases with porosity, impermeable rocks like granite prevent any percolation - areas with permeable rock will absorb the water and create groundwater storage and an aquifer (a permeable rock which shotes water) - porosity relates to the total volume of pore spaces and is greatest in coarse-grained rocks such as sandstone, while pervious rocks such as limestone have joints and bedding planes along which water can flow

Answer 9

1) temperature- increases with temp, the main energy source is solar radiation so evaporation and temperature will increase with sunshine hours 2) wind- increases the rate by reducing the relative humidity and preventing saturation of the air 3) vegetation cover- transpiration will increase with increased vegetation cover, which will depend on the type of vegetation with a low albedo (reflectivity), such as dark forests will absorb more solar ration and so more evaporation 4) soil moisture content- will determine the amount of water available for transpiration. it is dependant on soil and rock permeability.

Answer 10

the amount of evapotranspiration that could take place given unlimited supplies of water in an environment

Answer 11

the amount of evapotranspiration that takes place given the actual water availability

Answer 12

the total amount of moisture removed from a drainage basin by processes of evaporation and transpiration, they can represent a significant output

Answer 13

- overabstraction - river management (creation of dams and reservoirs) - deforestation - cloud seeding - urbanisation - changing of agricultural land use

Answer 14

- in some areas, groundwater is abstracted from aquifers faster than it is replaced, causing reduced groundwater flow and a lower water table - groundwater rebound can occur as a result of reduced abstraction for industry, increasing the risk of groundwater flooding, seen in some of the conurbations like London - over abstraction leads to salinisation, also leads to water table dropping Aral sea - filed were planted in order to make the soviet union completely self-sufficient in cotton consumer the rivers feeding into the Aral Sea - the previous sea was the largest landlocked body of water but is now a pit of sand, salt and pollution - the sand travels into the town through the winds as the salt sticks to the seabed, goes into the lungs pf the residents, tuberculosis has gone up as a result China - groundwater is used to irrigate more than 40% of china's farmland and provides 70% of drinking water in the dry northern and north-western regions - groundwater extraction is increasing by about 2.5 billion cubic metres/year and so ground water levels in the arid north china plain dropped by 1m between 1974 and 2000

Answer 15

- reservoirs and dams interrupt the natural flows of water by delaying the flows through a drainage basin and adding to the amounts lost by evaporation - the chemistry of the water may be altered, water exiting may be higher in dissolved salts or have lower oxygen levels than would be the case for a free-flowing river - the disruption of sediment transportation leads to areas further downstream suffering from sediment deprivation, affecting shoreline processes and biological productivity of coastal regions - salinity levels within the reservoir can also rise as its water evaporates and lowering of water tables glen canyon dam - was constructed in 1963 and the erosion of sediment along beaches started because of the lack of incoming sediment , by the 1990s many beaches were at risk of disappearing, native species may not survive aswan dam - lake Nasser behind the Aswan dam in Egypt is estimated to have evaporation losses of 10 to 16 billion cubic metres every year. this represents a loss of 20-30% of the Egyptian water volume from the river nile - estimated that 7% more water us evaporated from the world's reservoirs than is actually used

Answer 16

- the removal of the dense canopy protecting the vital topsoil can have devastating consequences - the clearing of forests for new roads and palm oil plantations and modern agribusinesses, disrupt the drainage basin cycle by accelerating natural processes, reduces evapotranspiration but increases infiltration and surface runoff - the trees play an essential role in the hydrological cycle, through transpiration they add water into the atmosphere, contributing to the formation of clouds and therefore rain - when forests are cut down less moisture goes into the atmosphere and rainfall declines, sometimes leading to drought amazon - deforestation affects everyone, moisture travels and results in rainfall on the other side of the world, ends up falling in Texas - rainforests of borneo and the amazon have experienced severe droughts, made worse by deforestation - soot impacts air quality and health, smoke producing forest fires reduce rainfall by disrupting clouds convection - transpiration replenishes reservoirs - more soil erosion and silt being fed into rivers - a lowering of humidities - more surface run off and infiltration

Answer 17

- the attempt to change the amount or type of precipitation by dispersing substances into the air that serve as cloud condensation nuclei ( hygroscopic nuclei) - new technology and research claims to have produced reliable results that make cloud seeding a dependable and affordable water supply practise for many regions - it can be done by ground generators or by planes/rockets china - china used cloud seeding in Beijing just before the 2008 Olympic Games to create rain to clear the air of pollution USA - it is used in the alpine meadows area in California to improve snow cover, and was used in 2015 in Texas to reduce the impact of drought

Answer 18

- urbanisation creates impermeable surfaces that reduce infiltration and percolation and increase surface run off and through flow through artificial drains, stream and river discharges often increase rapidly as a result - building new storage reservoirs or abstracting more water from rivers and groundwater reserves, helps to satisfy the increasing water demands of expanding cities at the expense of natural water flows UK - urbanisation has increased flood risk in many towns and cities such as winchester and maidenhead (2014 floods) and Carlisle, York and Manchester (2015 floods) - drains deliver rainfall more quickly to streams and rivers, increasing flooding

Answer 19

they show the annual balance between inputs (precipitation) and outputs (evapotranspiration) in any given area

Answer 20

precipitation = discharge + evapotranspiration + - change in storage P = Q + E + - S

Answer 21

``` monthly temperature potential evapotranspiration precipitation water surplus soil moisture utilisation soil moisture deficiency soil moisture recharge ```

Answer 22

mid December - mid april = water surplus mid April- mid july = soil moisture utilisation mid july-mid sep = soil moisture deficiency mid Sep-mid December = soil moisture recharge

Answer 23

precipitation is greater than potential evapotranspiration, soil water store is full so there is a soil moisture surplus for plant use, runoff and ground water recharge. soil is at field capacity

Answer 24

potential evapotranspiration higher than precipitation, more water evaporating from the ground surface and being transpired by plants than is falling as rain. water is also drawn up from the soil by capillary action. the water is gradually used up.

Answer 25

deficiency of soil water and potential evapotranspiration is higher than precipitation. plants must have adaptations to survive and irrigation is needed

Answer 26

precipitation higher than potential evapotranspiration, soil water will start to fill again

Answer 27

the soil is now full of water and cannot hold any more. further rain could lead to surface runoff

Answer 28

the amount of evaporation that occurs as a result of temperature and vegetation (time of year) as long as there is water available

Answer 29

climate type (tropical temperate or polar) depending on the climate type, the impacts on soil and water availability will differ

Answer 30

in Cairo's desert biome it means that they have very little rainfall a year with only 24mm annually. they are constantly in a soil moisture deficiency. evapotranspiration of 1170mm a year. their low rainfall means the risk of failure of crops, dried soil making it hard to grow and rivers drying up. highest EP in July due to heat.

Answer 31

Alaska's polar climate has led to 115mm of rain a year with an EP of 292mm and so they too suffer from deficits between may and September. their cold conditions and low rainfall means it is hard to grow crops and the soil lacks nutrients. highest EP in July due to heat.

Answer 32

the max rate at which the water can be infiltrated

Answer 33

it indicates the annual variation of discharge of a river a particular point (in cumecs)

Answer 34

the amount of water in a river at a particular point, measured in cumecs

Answer 35

occur when the river experiences one main factor leading to a period of high and period of low discharge (e.g. snowmelt in summer or a rainy season/monsoon

Answer 36

they are more likely to occur in longe rivers that cross more than one type of catchment which results in more than one factor influencing the pattern of discharge

Answer 37

it has a very large parchment and therefore experiences different climates across the basin. it will have varying terrain and vegetate cover, adding to the complexity of the pattern. river passes through mountainous relief close to its source in the Tibetan plateau as well as tropical areas with dense vegetation cover and monsoon climate closer to its mouth,

Answer 38

- much of the discharge is not from immediate precipitation or runoff as groundwater feeds rivers consistently over the year (if geology is permeable ) - there is often a lag time between when rain falls and when it reaches the river depending on many local and basin wide factors

Answer 39

1) the size of the catchment/basin = the larger it is the greater the discharge and complexity 2) precipitation- amount, pattern and intensity. seasonal maximum often reflected in regime. snow reduces discharge until it melts in spring/summer 3) temperature- control evapotranspiration which will be greatest in summer and reduce the discharge. glacier melt in summer increases discharge. 4) vegetation cover (influenced by climate and humans)- greater vegetation leads to less fluctuation in discharge as water is intercepted, stored, utilised and evaporated, wetlands can hold water and release it slowly into the river 5) human intervention- dam building changes flow and can regulate it, abstraction of water may lead to unexplained changes in the regime 6) geology and soil type- water stored in groundwater in permeable rocks steadily feeds the river as base flow all year and acts as a reservoir, reducing fluctuation. impermeable will fluctuate more (decreases more in summer/ periods of dry weather)

Answer 40

there is high rainfall all year round but has a drier season. some tributaries come from different ecosystems. over the year discharge is generally over 100,000 cumecs except from September-january.

Answer 41

snowmelt in summer and high precipitation all year round but only falls as rain in summer. varying river regime with a large increase in discharge in June when snow melts and then goes back to down mid September. then slowly up in November.

Answer 42

monsoon climate in northern climate but temperate in the south but most lies in a rain shadow. much lower discharge with a range from around 300 cumecs to 1200 over the year. peak is in summer for monsoon climate

Answer 43

The basin lag time is the time between peak rainfall and peak discharge (how long water takes to get to the river) The rising limb is the slope upwards so the rising discharge The recession limb is the decrease in river discharge as the river returns to its normal level. peak discharge reached sometime after peak rainfall as water takes time to move over The small bar graph measures the amount of precipitation. The y axis is the discharge and the x axis is the hours from start of rain storm. The actual space under the line graph goes from top to bottom: overland flow to through flow to base flow. overland flow- water that came as surface runoff/overland flow through flow- water that came through the soil base flow- water that comes through the rocks (generally consistent, unless in drought)

Answer 44

short lag time- urbanisation, no infiltration, a lot of surface run off so quickly reaches the river long lag time- when less impermeable surfaces, low pop density, trees cause interception

Answer 45

- short lag time - peak discharge high - rising limb steep - more likely to cause flooding - rainfall reaches river quickly

Answer 46

- long lag time - peak discharge low - gentle rising limb - rainfall reaches river slowly - less likely to cause flooding

Answer 47

- urbanisation - saturated ground - high drainage density (lots of rivers) - circular shape basin (all tributaries are equal distance they will all arrive at the same time) - frozen ground

Answer 48

- rural areas - elongated shape - low drainage density - hot temperatures - forested land

Answer 49

drainage basin size flashy: small, water will reach the channel rapidly as shorter distance to travel subdued: large, water takes longer to reach channel as greater distance drainage density flashy: high, large number of surface streams per km squared, storm reacher reach channel quicker subdued: low, small number of surface streams per km squared, water travels slowly through soil drainage basin shape flashy: circular, all tributaries are at equal distance, arrive at the same time subdued: elongated, water will take long time to reach the channel from extremities of the drainage basin rock type flashy: impermeable, water cannot percolate into rocks, increased surface run off subdued: permeable, water percolates through pore spaces and fissures soil type flashy: clay and thin soils, clay soils have low porosity and grains swell when they absorb water, low infiltration, thin soil becomes saturated quickly subdued: sandy and thick soils, sandy soils have high porosity, deep soils allow for more infiltration relief flashy: high, steep slopes that promote surface runoff subdued: low, gentle slopes that allow percolation and infiltration vegetation flashy: thin grass intercepts little water and low evapotranspiration more water reaches channel, low density, deciduous in winter subdued: dense, forest and woodland, higher levels of interception, more water lost to evaporation land use flashy: urban, more hard surfaces less infiltration, drains carry water quicker subdued: rural, vegetated surfaces, more infiltration, arrive to channel less quickly urbanisation flashy: urbanisation, producing impermeable surfaces, deforestation reduces interception, arable land, downslope ploughing subdued: low pop density, few artificial impermeable surfaces, reforestation, pastoral land

Answer 50

- construction work leads to the removal of the vegetation cover. this exposes the soil and increases vegetation cover - bare soil is eventually replaced by tarmac, impermeable, high surface runoff - high density of buildings means rain falls onto roofs that is swiftly fed into drains by gutters and pipes - drains and sewers reduce the distance and time rainwater travels before reaching a channel - urban rivers often have embankments to prevent flood, when flooded they can be more devastating - bridges can restrain the discharge of floodwaters and act as local dams thus prompting upstream floods

Answer 51

dry ground would normally have lots of pore spaces and encourage infiltration to occur until the soil becomes saturated again (unless the precipitation intensity is greater than the infiltration capacity) however, it may have experienced high evapotranspiration which may be have drawn salts up through the soil via capillary action and left a salty crust on the surface, making it impermeable until washed away

Answer 52

- in the uk planners must assess whether any proposed development will influence flood risk with the change in land use - the national planning policy framework sets out strict guidelines - economic development increases the likelihood of higher flow and a faster response time - developers have to show that land use changes will not increase runoff beyond that estimated for a 'Greenfield' site - in the development of large offices it will lead to lower ET, reduced infiltration, large volumes of poor quality runoff and wastewater discharge - planners play a large role as many towns and cities are naturally prone to flooding because of their locations, number of people in urban areas and the huge amount of money invested in urban property

Answer 53

these have been introduced to reduce runoff produced from rainfall. examples include: 1) green roofs- vegetation cover planted over a waterproof membrane 2) infiltration basins- shallow depressions dug out to delay runoff and increase infiltration 3) permeable pavements- to delay runoff by using pas between pavement slabs 4) rainwater harvesting- collecting rainwater from roofs to be recycled, e.g. for irrigating gardens 5) wetlands- retention areas with marsh/wetland vegetation

Answer 54

meteorological drought agricultural drought hydrological drought socio-economic/famine drought

Answer 55

occurs when long-term precipitation is lower than normal

Answer 56

when there is insufficient soil moisture to meet the crops needs

Answer 57

deficiencies in surface and subsurface supplies (rivers, reservoirs, lakes and groundwater). can lead to salinisation in high temps

Answer 58

widespread failure of crops and natural vegetation, demand is greater than supply

Answer 59

an extended period (season, year or several years) of deficient rainfall relative to the average for an area. it is a slow onset hazard.

Answer 60

1) global atmospheric circulation system and the blocking STR at 30 degrees North (Long term) 2) mid latitude blocking anticyclones (shorter term) 3) El Nino southern oscillation cycle (ENSO)

Answer 61

shorter term may be mid latitude blocking anticyclones or sea surface temperature anomalies and long term trends may be those that are associated with climate change or the ITCZ

Answer 62

areas 30º north and south are drought prone due to warm and clear skies through high pressure. - sometimes the sub tropical ridge associated with the descending Hadley cell air blocks the high humidity, rain bearing air masses that arrive with the ITCZ. - this is because it is dense and stable. - this can cause severe droughts like in the Sahel and is generally worse 30º north - climate change may increase this by reducing the temperature difference between land and sea

Answer 63

normally in the mid latitudes (UK) frontal precipitation is created in low pressure systems that form along the polar front where warm tropical air rises over cold polar air - when the jetstream loops north of the UK, high pressure areas (anticyclones) from the subtropics can move northwards, this 'blocking' anticyclone is able to block the passage of the jetstream which brings depressions to the UK - the stability of the anticyclones means that due to the sinking air and calm conditions they can persist and block weather systems from the west for up to two weeks, if this happens a lot it can cause drought - from 2010-2012 England and Wales saw a prolonged period of below-average rainfall due to blocking anticyclones leading to: - raging wildfires in NW Scotland as peat lands dried out - in autumn 2011 farmers struggled to harvest crops

Answer 64

they move form west to east in the mid-latitudes as a result of the Coriolis force and their track is diverted by the polar front jet stream which is a very fast moving belt of air in the upper troposphere, these depressions are forced normally to the north but also to the south

Answer 65

- upwards/rising air - clockwise, light/calm winds - high pressure - dry weather - very stable, not easily moved and can stay put for several weeks

Answer 66

It refers to the coupled ocean-atmospheric cycle where a large mass of warm water in the equatorial Pacific alters its position during the cycle. (normally happens at Christmas)

Answer 67

normal conditions: - trade winds blow from east to west along the equator - the air pushes the warm moist air westwards to Indonesia and the cold dry air to South America - the warmer air in the west results in low pressure and in the east the air cools and sinks creating high pressure - warm, moist air rises, cools and condenses forming rain clouds - thermocline, upwelling el nino: - the air circulation loop is reversed with air moving from west to east and so Peru gets wetter due to warm air and Indonesia gets dryer due to colder air leading to forest fires and droughts. - the trade winds get weaker and warm surface water drifts across the Pacific towards S America leading to a drought in the west - less upwelling of cold on east, cancels out normal temp difference - it impacts the tropics the most

Answer 68

trade winds strengthen and so this leads to the ocean become colder with more upwelling in the east and warmer oceans in the west. this leads to enhanced conditions where water is colder than normal in the tropical part of the pacific. this can lead to severe drought conditions especially along the western coast of South America, usually follows after an el Nino event and there is very warm water moving east to west with very strong air circulation

Answer 69

it refers to the climate anomalies that relate to each other over large distances ENSO cycles have been connected with climate anomalies across the world teleconnections in el niño show dry weather in western pacific from June to January and eastern Pacific between the band of dry weather sees wet weather from June to April - el nino has also created dryer conditions in south Africa and india this is reversed in a la Nina where the band in western Pacific becoming wet and the band to the east becoming dry - la nina has created dryer conditions in the Middle East and southern USA areas wet in el niño will be dry in la Nina

Answer 70

- Britain have pledged £45million of emergency support for 2.6 million people and food for up to 120,000 malnourished children in Ethiopia and elsewhere - one of the worst affected areas is likely to be Malawi where the worst drought in almost 10 years is expected to cause further severe malnutrition - unicef said it expected 8.5 million people in Ethiopia to need food aid and several million more in Somalia and Kenya

Answer 71

- the concentrated rain bands account for 40% of California's water supply - it reduces rainfall in their wet seasons and less rain means drier vegetation and drier air which makes forests more vulnerable to forest fires - the 2015 el Nino was scheduled to be the strongest since 1997-98 - people wonder whether it would have brought significant rainfall to drought-plagued California

Answer 72

- large eruptions can trigger el Nino events - el niños tend to occur one year after a large eruption as seen after pinatubo's eruption of 1991. la Ninas also tend to be shorter after eruptions and el ninos longer - the large amounts of sulfur dioxide can reflect sunlight. causing lower temperatures

Answer 73

- some suggest that super el ninos events could double in the future due to CC - scientists are predicting that extreme el Nino events could occur every 10 years instead of every 20 - some suggest the enso cycle will become more intense, others say it will weaken and some say it wont change - the interaction of them means that the el Nino events may be stronger than ever

Answer 74

'society is not a passive victim of drought'

Answer 75

- deforestation - population rise (puts pressure on land to grow more food) - over abstraction - poverty - overcultivation and overgrazing (intense use of magical land exhausts the soil and crops won't grow, too much cattle destroys the vegetation cover)

Answer 76

- deforestation reduces evapotranspiration rates and thereby reduces atmospheric moisture and precipitation - the removal of vegetation changes soil conditions through compaction and reduced organic matter and moisture retention, reducing infiltration which reduces soil moisture content and water storage - the roots no longer bid the soil and erosion ensues

Answer 77

- the norther Sahel is seeing a 30-40% annual departure from normal rainfall - according to the CSIRO, the drought of the late 20th century were caused by air pollution (sulphur-based aerosols) generated in europe and north america. this led to atmospheric cooling changing the global heat budget and atmospheric circulation so that tropical rains associated with the ITCZ did not arrive therefore causing drought - over abstraction here as illegal wells were dug as costs were too high for the majority of the population - in 2005 a study by NOAA said that the drought may have been caused by higher sea surface temperatures caused by anthropogenic climate warming. the rain bearing winds appear to fail when the sea temps are higher than average POP PRESSURE - population growth rates form 2.5-4% has led to increased demand for food and water, natural drylands ecosystems converted into farmland, over cultivated, over cultivation, over grazing and deforestation has led to desertification - led to less transpiration from vegetation - poor soil quality and erosion

Answer 78

- met office Hadley centre forecasted that the 2015/16 el Nino would increase water stress in the Sahel where temps were 2ºC higher than normal - a pulse of easterly winds in the pacific caused effects in other world regions, cooler waters in North Atlantic added to the drying conditions - relationship between drought and desertification remains unclear - impacts made worse by frequent civil wars, crops, livestock and homes have been deliberately destroyed

Answer 79

OVERABSTRACTION AND DEFORESTATION - in 2014-15 they experienced the worst drought in 80 years, affected mainly SE Brazil - their rainfall is normally predictable with moist air moving in a westerly direction and when reaching the andes mountains it is forced southwards, maintaining the moisture - there was an atmospheric blocking, moisture-laden air was diverted northwards, dumping twice the usual amount of rain - a series of high pressure systems diverted rain bearing winds further north, away from the amazon, also prevented them from diverting southwards form the andes - high pressure weather systems thought to have blocked rain bearing winds and diverted them to Bolivia and Paraguay

Answer 80

- water rationing for 4 million people, water supplies cut off for 3 days a week in some towns - the halting of HEP production led to power cuts - the depletion of Brazil's 17 largest reservoirs to dangerously low levels some to 1% of capacity - a reduced crop of arabica coffee beans which pushed up global coffee prices by 60%, Brazil is the largest producer

Answer 81

- high fees ($300) charged by brazil's gov for granting a license to drill a well - many drilled illegal wells which are not monitored for water safety - some forecast that 70% of wells in Sao Paulo were illegal in 2014 - illegal wells are generally shallow so they contain industrial pollutants and higher levels of bacteria

Answer 82

- rainforests recycle half of their rainfall but the positive feedback loop of deforestation and less rainfall is reducing the ability for them to regenerate - thinning forests have reduced soil water storage and evapotranspiration, leading to changing weather patterns, less rain impacts - amazon's capacity to absorb carbon will decline - regional water cycles will change and soil temps will increase - reduced rainfall will threaten Brazil's dependency on HEP - the world will lose a major carbon sink and source of moisture

Answer 83

OVERABSTRACTION AND ENSO - the millenium drought was the longest uninterrupted series of year with below median rainfall in SE Australia since 1900s with annual rainfall between 1997 and 2009, 12.4% below 20th century mean - was caused by El Nino events of 2002-3 and 2006-7, the prevailing el Nino conditions explained about 2/3 of rainfall deficit in eastern Australia - strengthening of the STR accounted for about 80% of rainfall decline in SE Australia, this ridge of high pressure blocked depressions, forcing them higher latitudes and reducing frontal rainfall - upstream farmers have been illegally taking more water than their allocation affecting downstream - poor governance over this - they do not face desertification due to careful management of scarce water resources, large scale recycling of grey water, salivation plants and new conservation strategies

Answer 84

abiotic (water, soil, rocks and atmosphere) biotic (living plants, animal and fungi) nutrient cycling, hydro cycle, weathering, food webs (energy transfers)

Answer 85

ecosystem resilience- the capacity of an ecosystem to recover from disturbance or withstand ongoing pressure ecosystem functioning- about the physical, chemical and biological processes that occur naturally

Answer 86

- less river and groundwater flow into the wetland leads to areas of open water shrinking and drying up. leading to habitat loss (aquatic birds like moorhen) - soil moisture reduces and soil dries out, becoming vulnerable to erosion and then less able to store water in times of flood. also lower food supply for birds - can lead to overbaked soils leading to increased difficulty for growing crops, increased risk of forest fires - concentrations of pollutants increase, further reducing populations of different species - organic soils oxidise and break down releasing carbon into the atmosphere

Answer 87

minsmere in Suffolk, a functioning wetland ecosystem

Answer 88

- they cover about 10% of the earth's land surface - before they were considered as wastelands only good for draining and infilling to provide building land now they are seen as very important - they act as temporary water stores, for recharging aquifers, act as giant filters for trapping pollutants and act as nurseries for fish and feeding sites for migrating birds - with less precipitation from drought there will be less interception as well as less infiltration and percolation as vegetation becomes stressed - water tables will fall and evaporation will increase and so this will reduce the valuable functions performed by wetlands

Answer 89

- they account for more than 1/3 of land area and supply water to 60 million americans - water storage and regulation of hydrological processes, timber production, wildlife habitat, carbon sequestration (plants taking in CO2) and recreational opportunities - trees take an average of two to four years to recover to normal growth rates after drought - forests are important for carbon sequestration within the GFN calculating that forests store an average of 0.73 tonnes of carbon per hectare per year, which is important for regulating climate change

Answer 90

resilience to drought lower for species such as pine here they tend to keep using water at a high rate, even during a drought

Answer 91

- a combination of a severe drought and high temps led to a significant die-off of piñon pines in the four corners region of the SW USA - the hot dry conditions made the pitons more susceptible to pine bark beetle attacks and in some areas more than 90% of the pitons died, resulting in a major ecosystem change - warmer winter temperatures have also contributed to bark beetle outbreaks because more of the beetles are able to survive through the winter and reproduce - forests are now less able to sequester and store carbon

Answer 92

- foliage loss, impairing growth, increased accumulation of pests and diseases and lasting damage to vascular tissues, impairing water transport - insect outbreaks that have killed millions of trees, higher risk of fires

Answer 93

- depressions in mid latitudes - extreme monsoon rainfall and snowmelt - enso cycles intense floods leading to flash flooding unusually heavy or prolonged rainfall (such as the monsoon) rapid snowmelt

Answer 94

river flooding, discharge exceeds bank full discharge and overflows from the river

Answer 95

surface flooding due to either: a) urban flooding (drains overflow and water comes up) b) water table rising to surface (ground saturation = saturated overland flow = ground water flooding) c) infiltration excess flooding (rain is falling faster than infiltration capacity rate)

Answer 96

when warm air (from the warm front) is forced to rise over cold air (from the cold front) leading to the formation of frontal rain - it forms when warm air from the tropics meets cold polar air over the Atlantic. tropical forms a wedge into the polar air, forms the fronts. - they move eastwards across the Atlantic to the UK due to the jetstream - cold fronts bring heavy rain, warm fronts bring steady rain

Answer 97

- cold front is blue with traingles - warm front is red with semi circles - black circular lines are isobars (close together)

Answer 98

- these depressions are brought by the jet stream - warm air rises over cold air condenses and forms clouds and frontal rain - when the jet stream sits over the UK, we get low pressure weather systems brought to us that have formed over the Atlantic at the polar front - steady rain can lead to saturated overland flow - heavy rain can lead to infiltration excess overland flow - if the jet-stream stays put over a region for a longer period of time when it would normally be south or north of us, the jet stream is unpredictable, e.g. storm Desmond 2015

Answer 99

- cumbria is vulnerable to orthographic rainfall due to the upland area - the combination of warm wet westerly winds plus uplands makes them one of the wettest places in England - they saw severe flooding in 2005,2009 and 2015 storm Desmond - december 2015 due to deep Atlantic low-pressure system (depressions) - fronts stretched across northern Britain bringing prolonged and heavy rainfall through a warm conveyor (jetstream) - 5200 homes destroyed - on 5th December, honester pass recorded 341.4mm of rain in just 24 hours - 61,000 homes lost power when an electrical substation was flooded

Answer 100

1) a conveyor of warm and wet air tracked towards the UK from the carribean 2) the cumbrian feds created orographic (relief) rainfall 3) the moist air mass stayed over cumbria for up to 48 hours, delivering record amounts of rain 4) there was too much rain for the already saturated ground to absorb as November 2015 has been the wettest November since 1910. overland flow carried the excess water to the rivers and steep cumbrian slopes accelerated this. 5) significant flooding cured at river confluences at cocker mouth and Carlisle 6) impermeable surfaces and drains blocked by debris meant that the surface water followed rapidly and directly into the already over-filled river channels

Answer 101

the placement of the jet stream - the jet stream determines the direction of depressions and their speed of movement - this band moves north and south but it remained over the northwest longer than usual, bringing in rain-laden depressions from across the Atlantic - budget cuts in the amount of money being spent on flood defences - an EU Directive that puts environmental conservation ahead of the regular dredging of rivers - poor land management, resulting in blocked ditches global warming

Answer 102

- melting snow in spring often causes extensive flooding in the continental interiors of Asia and america - the quick transition from winter to spring upstream causes rapid snowmelt while their lower reaches remain frozen, with very little infiltration - flood water is often held up by temporary ice dams - sometimes rain falls on melting snow when a rapid thaw occurs and this combination can cause heavy flooding. seen in Yorkshire where spring floods are intensified by rapid snowmelt in the higher parts of the river ouse catchment - in the Himalayas, glacial outburst floods occur as ice dams melt, leading to catastrophic draining of glacial lakes. these floods are often exacerbated through landslides or earthquake-induced dam failure - in Iceland, glacial outburst floods are frequent due to volcanic activity which generates melt water beneath the ice sheets and can cause jokulhlaups

Answer 103

used to describe seasonal reversals of wind direction, caused by temperature differences between the land and sea. The ITCZ moves north in summer and heats the Indian sub continent more than the surrounding ocean, this causes air to rise and suck in moist air from over the Indian Ocean. this is forced to rise over land and mountains to condense and bring heavy rain from may to September - naturally varies by up to 10% each year moves south in winter and causes the asian monsoon

Answer 104

spring/summer - southwest monsoon, rain over the land 1) large land mass heats up rapidly, drawing humid air in from the surrounding ocean 2) then cools, condenses 3) as the moisture-laden air reaches the warm land, it rises and moisture condenses as rain winter- northeast or retreating monsoon, rain over the ocean 1) land mass becomes cooler than the surrounding ocean 2) cools, condenses 3) cold, dry air air flows from the land out over the ocean

Answer 105

- an increase in monsoon rainfall on a seasonal mean, area-average basis, due to the twin drivers of an increasing land-sea thermal contrast and the warming over the indian ocean which allows more moisture to be carried to India - a 5-10% change in rainfall, can influence agricultural production and the stocks and commodities market - a break in monsoon rains sees cuts of up to 50% in some cases of their normal rainfall, leading to cuts in agricultural output and declining GDP

Answer 106

- structural damage to buildings and infrastructure (e.g. bridges) - higher insurance premiums/refusal of insurance - lower property values - loss of livelihoods (factories, farming) - drop in tourism

Answer 107

- natural moderate floods can be beneficial to wetland ecosystem by encouraging nutrient disposal, breeding and migration - recharge of groundwater supplies - - environments already degraded by human activities, flooding becomes more negative - excessive overland flow brings too much sediment and washes too many nutrients into ecosystems leading to eutrophication or pollution from chemicals which degrade ecosystems

Answer 108

- stress and grief - sewage mixing with flood water creating secondary hazards (diseases) - tropical countries from poisonous snakes

Answer 109

- George monbiot argues farmers are making it worse through overgrazing with sheep so that now bare slopes replace forests - before trees absorbed and slowly released water, meandering channels slowed the flow and bogs held the water back - now the bare and drier soils with straightened and dredged channels leading to faster run off and reduced stream lag times and higher discharge peaks. rainwater now reaches floodplains quicker due to impermeable surfaces

Answer 110

- before 2005, a combination of raised riverbanks, pumping stations and diversion channels carried surplus water away from built-up areas in cumbria - the hard engineering schemes are common in cumbria and are based on the flood-return period which is a statistical estimate of how often a flood of a certain magnitude is likely to occur, based on past flood levels river embankments: designed to protect from floods of a given magnitude. They can fail when a flood exceeds their capacity. Inevitably, when this happens, the scale of flooding is that much greater.

Answer 111

- the environment agency no believe that hard engineering schemes are not the solutions to flooding. they are very expensive and often cant cope with the most extreme flooding. they believe soft engineering solutions are better through: 1) reforestation of upland areas to reduce rapid surface run off 2) restoration of river channels to their natural meandering states 3) restoration of river channels to their natural meandering states 4) refusal of planning permission to build or expansion developments near rivers

Answer 112

social - 3000 homes were flooded in 2005, and over 5200 in 2015 - some local services such as schools, healthcare, shops and offices had to close temporarily - many residents suffered anxiety, stress and psychological trauma economic - many businesses closed and transport and infrastructure were damaged - cost of flooding in cumbria was £100 million in 2005, £270 million in 2009 and £400-500 in 2015 - insurance claims caused by flooding in 2015 exceeded £6 billion environmental - many riverbanks were eroded, which added to future flood risks - rivers were choked with debris and contaminated with sewage and pollutants - saturated ground led to decomposition of dead plants and animals releasing noxious gases such as hydrogen sulphide, contaminated food chain

Answer 113

- for the same amount of water flowing, its discharge has been steadily getting higher since 1860 - the flood of 1993 was triggered by about the same discharge of 1903 but was 12 feet higher, causing billions of dollars worth of damage in the basin, tens of thousands of acres of farmland were destroyed along with roads aswell - the construction of levees and channelisation of the lower Missouri and the middle Mississippi have greatly magnified their floods - some say that the lower Missouri should be allowed to return to its natural braided form rather than being confined in high, narrow banks - they are meant to be protected by 29 locks and dams, hundreds of canals and levees along its banks

Answer 114

- more than 98% of forests are gone, leaving no topsoil to hold rains - their mango and avocado trees are vanishing (vital food source) - 2004 flood caused more than 800 deaths, in may 2004 light rains caused floods that killed more than 3000 - reduced vegetation cover has led to dropping water table due to less regulation rain, less evapotranspiration - in 1950, 25% was covered by forest, in 2004 only 1.4% was forested - 71% of their energy comes from charcoal, farmers chopped trees to make and sell charcoal - over the past 20 years, the US agency for international development has planted 60 million trees - one of the fastest growing populations in he world- Haitian women average five earths each which has reduced the average holding to little more than half an acre

Answer 115

deforestation and removal of natural vegetation - for agriculture or urbanisation - reduces interception and ET, increasing surface run off (saturated overland flow) and resulting in rain reaching river quicker - increases soil erosion and therefore sediment load and deposition in channel, reducing river capacity further increasing flood risk e. g. Haiti's deforestation mismanagement of rivers using hard engineering - transfers the flood problem elsewhere - building artificial levees increase channel capacity but discharge is funnelled downstream instead - water is constricted and floods created downstream - e.g. the impact that channelisation and levees have had on Mississippi urbanisation - expansion of impermeable surfaces increases surface run off into rivers via the urban drainage system - lag times are reduced as drainage systems aim to deliver water quickly to water courses so that streets dont flood floodplain drainage - done to provide land for agriculture or expand urban areas - this reduces the natural storage capacity of the floodplain especially where natural wetlands are lost - land also shrinks when it is drained, making it more low lying and vulnerable to flooding e. g. cumbria

Answer 116

population pressure

Answer 117

it charts the relationship between a rainfall event and its discharge in a river channel. there can either be subdued or flashy hydrographs depending on the area

Answer 118

blue water- water that is stored in rivers, lakes, streams and groundwater (visible) green water- water stored in soil and vegetation (invisible)

Answer 119

factors from within the drainage basin like shape, relief, geology, vegetation, climate and land use that determine what happens to precipitation when it falls

Answer 120

warm surface water in the pacific that is normally kept on the west as a result of trade winds, moves east across the Pacific Ocean

Answer 121

water contained in an undisturbed space (aquifer) from pluvial periods in the geological past

Answer 122

a more intense version of normal conditions in the pacific when trade winds are intensified and warm surface water is pushed further west, allowing colder water to upwell and move further west across the ocean, causing drought in South America. this usually follows an el Nino event

Answer 123

national and regional scale - provide useful info on the amount of water that is available for human use (for agriculture, domestic consumption, etc) local scale - they can inform about available soil water. this is valuable to users, such as farmers, who can use it to identify when irrigation might be required, and how much

Answer 124

- the air circulation loop is reversed with air moving from west to east and so Peru gets wetter and Indonesia gets dryer leading to forest fires and droughts whilst creating floods in Peru. - the trade winds get weaker leading to a drought in the west and flood in the east

Answer 125

deforestation- Brazil population pressure and cc- Sahel overabstraction of water- australia

Answer 126

precipitation - a warmer atmosphere has a greater water-holding capacity - precipitation to increase in tropics and high latitudes and will decrease 10-30º north and south of the equator as conditions strengthen - widespread increases in rainfall intensity due to increase in moisture in the troposphere and so the higher water vapour concentration leads to intense rainfall events - more rain in northern regions falling as rain and not as snow evaporation - evaporation rates to increase due to warmer temps - transpiration is linked to vegetation changes which in turn are linked to changes in soil moisture and precipitation

Answer 127

``` runoff (flow) leading to flooding soil moisture stores leading to drought snow ice permafrost reservoir, lake and wetland storage ```

Answer 128

snow - warmer temps means more snow is falling as rain - length of snow-cover season has decreased especially in norther hemisphere, earlier peaks in snowmelt - a decreased temporary store, particularly in northern Siberia and canada ice - strong evidence that glaciers have retreated globally, since the little global ice age, thinning of glaciers occurring (down washing), quicker since 1970s - tropical high-latitude glaciers, e.g. the andes have seen the most rapid changes, low flow of the cryosphere supply

Answer 129

runoff (flow) leading to flooding - an accelerated cycle with more intense rainfall with increase run-off rates and reduced infiltration - with more climate extremes there will be an increase in hydrologic extremes with more low flows and high flows - more times we will see infiltration-excess overland flow and saturated overland flow, increasing chances of flooding, pass infiltration capacity soil moisture stores leading to drought - warmer temps leads tof increased drying of land surface, increased incidence and severity of drought, palmer drought severity index a measure of soil moisture - sahel, eastern Australia, southern africa see harsher conditions in particular - shifts in water cycle occurred over past century due to both natural variations and human forcings - transpiration linked to changes in soil moisture and precipitation and therefore drought

Answer 130

permafrost - changes in climate at high altitudes leading to permafrost degradation - deepening of the active layers has an impact on groundwater supplies and also release methane from thaw lakes, leading to positive feedback and accelerating change - methane released from thaw lakes may accelerate change reservoir, lake and wetland storage - due to earlier snowmelt, seasons with highest water demand especially summer and autumn are seeing reduced availability of fresh water - wetlands affected by decreasing water volumes and higher temps, habitats dying - regional variations in lakes and reservoirs linked to regional changes in climate change

Answer 131

- unsure on tipping points, point at which permafrost melts, sea ice disappears - sheer complexity of the atmospheric system (e.g. the ENSO cycle, sunspot activity complicates data) - inconsistent results from climate models - government policy, unsure on what governments will put into place, this can dramatically change the impacts - development, uncertainty on the amount of carbon to be released and its effects on temps, renewable energy? - pop rise (plateau in growth?)

Answer 132

- greater rates of evapotranspiration leading to dessication of forest stores - more frequent cyclone and monsoon events threaten water supplies intermittently - increased intensity and frequency of droughts as a result of global arming and oscillation is an issue for rainfed agriculturalists (type of farming that relies on rainfall for water) - loss of snow and glaciers as a store threatens many communities in mountainous areas, e.g. the Himalayas - depleted aquifers leads to problems with groundwater

Answer 133

- some suggest that enso cycles will become more frequent and more severe, influencing drought and flooding around the world - what will be difficult is distinguishing between the impacts of long-term climate change and those of the short-term oscillations associated with el-nino events - another complication is that enso cycles are associated both with extreme flooding in some parts of the world and extreme drought in others. - the impact of oscillations from the enso cycles are causing increasingly unreliable patterns of rainfall, e.g. less predictable monsoons

Answer 134

if a country's renewable freshwater supply is between 1000 and 1700mcubed per person per year

Answer 135

when present and future water supplies cannot be guaranteed

Answer 136

if a country's renewable freshwater supply falls to below 1000mcubed per person per year

Answer 137

- areas along the sub-tropical ridge are seeing water scarcity - saudi arabia, algeria and syria are experiencing absolute scarcity (less than 500 mcubed/person/day) - 2025 predictions show that Southern Hemisphere will see a lot of economic water scarcity whilst the north will increase most no or little water scarcity or physical water scarcity

Answer 138

- much of east africa and India are experiencing water stress

Answer 139

- relates to the distribution of freshwater resources (water availability) and the distribution of the demand for water - 12% of the world's population consumes 85% of its water - rapid population growth in areas where supplies are limited together with an uneven distribution of global supply and a deterioration in water quality means more people are facing water shortages

Answer 140

- salt water encroachment at the coast - climate change is changing hydrological cycle (annual precipitation and evaporation and evapotranspiration) - ENSO cycles - blocking sub-tropical ridge - discharge into the sea

Answer 141

- physical process caused by humans directly and indirectly - more water is being abstracted from aquifers near the ocean, as more is abstracted the salt water seeps into the ground and into the aquifer, slowly contaminating the freshwater supply - e.g. FLORIDA where water demand is increasing due to increasing affluence meaning more swimming pools and more water is being abstracted from aquifers near the ocean

Answer 142

- overabstraction from rivers, lakes and groundwater aquifers - water contamination from agriculture, industrial and domestic pollution

Answer 143

increasing pop and economic growth - increased demand for water - overabstraction of groundwater and surface stores - salt water intrusion at the coast - water stress and scarcity low development levels - lack of investment into making freshwater available and affordable, damage to ecosystems, decline in water availability, water stress and security

Answer 144

1) population growth - demand for water is growing twice as fast as pop growth - increased urbanisation puts a threat on the availability of freshwater with more than half of the world living in urban areas - by 2030, the urban pop in Asia and africa is set to double 2) rising living standards - increase in middle class led to sharp increase in water use, swimming pools, washing machines and dishwashers - changing consumption patterns such as increasing meat consumption and building bigger homes 3) economic development (agriculture and industrialisation) - the OECD predict that global water demand for manufacturing would increase by 400% from 2000-2050 - where water is not well regulated, pollution could increase dramatically with industrial spillage and poor waste management AGRICULTURE - in some cases up to 90% of water used by a country is for agriculture, growing demand for food - agricultural demands for freshwater are unsustainable through increasing pesticide and fertiliser pollution, depleting aquifers and increased salinity - 20% of the world's irrigated land now suffers from salinity

Answer 145

1) diminishing supply - climate change and impacts - deteriorating quality from pollution - impact of competing users (upstream vs downstream) 2) rising demands - pop growth - economic development 3) competing demands from users (within basins) - international issues - upstream vs downstream - HEP vs irrigation

Answer 146

- this occurs when more than 75% of a country's or region's blue water (accessible liquid) flows are being used - currently applies to 25% of the population - qualifying countries include the Middle East and North Africa

Answer 147

- occurs when the use of blue water sources is limited by lack of capital, technology and good governance - estimated that 1 billion people are restricted from accessing blue water due to poverty - this is seen in most areas of africa and parts of continental south east Asia

Answer 148

- whether governments own or private companies own water supplies, in Bolivia water was privatised where an American TNC took control and this led to outrage, prices soared, mass conflict - the initial costs involved, cost of infrastructure pipes means many rely on trees vendors (can be up to 100 times the cost than if the water were to be supplied to their home), charities such as WaterAid need to offer invaluable help, their programmes help to reduce the extent of economic water security - governments can choose to tax water supplies or subsidise, in Denmark it is most expensive as government are trying to reduce consumption, canada subsidies for consumers, canada it is heavily subsidised by the gov and so water is 80% cheaper than in Germany where it is private. - supply and demand - colonial governments would install limited infrastructure and the IMF restricts gov spending on water and so now water provision is often controlled by the private sector

Answer 149

the WPI uses five measures to indicate levels of water insecurity: 1) resources- the physical availability of surface and groundwater and its quality 2) access- the accessibility of safe water for human use, including domestic, industrial and agricultural use 3) capacity- the effectiveness of water management to ensure affordability 4) use- the use of water for different purposes, including domestic, industrial and agricultural use 5) environment- water management strategies to ensure ecological sustainability each of the measures are scored out of 20 to give an overall score of up to 100

Answer 150

UK- they have a very good WPI at 71, they score the best in terms of capacity at 17.8 meaning they are very efficient in terms of the water they use China- they have a medium WPI at 56.6 with their use scoring the highest at 18, this could be down to their growing pop and middle class, they score the best in terms of resources at 7.1 USA- they have a a medium WPI at 58.5, their use is at 1.3 as they waste a lot of water, they are not efficient

Answer 151

improvements in water, reduction in illnesses from dirty water (65% reduction in deaths from diarrhoea), improved health, access to working life and therefore reduced poverty improvements in water, lower medical costs and fewer days off work, improved school attendance, improved education and career opportunities, reduced poverty - water, particularly that polluted by lack of sanitation, is an effective medium for the breeding and transmission of diseases such as typhoid and cholera - safe water is vital to human health particularly in the context of washing and food preparation, also productive breeding ground for disease vector such as parasitic worms and mosquitoes - millennium development goals aimed to halve the number of people without access to safe drinking water and sanitation by 2015 - the WHO says 'every dollar spent on improving sanitation generates an average economic benefit of US$7 this shows that water is very important for economic development, quality of life and escaping the cycle of poverty

Answer 152

agriculture - agriculture dominates water use, more than twice the total withdrawn for industrial and domestic purposes - in some countries 90% of water used in a country is for agriculture - 20% of the world's irrigated and of this most is pumped directly from aquifers and is leading to massive groundwater depletion , water situation is unsustainable industry and energy - just over 20% of all freshwater withdrawals are for industrial and energy production - mounting concern of the growth of biofuels as the crops are very thirsty - water pollution is a major problems associated with much of this industrial use of water

Answer 153

- contaminated drinking water has led to the country having one of the highest rates of stunting in the world - stunted children don't grow properly, physically and cognitively, this can therefore affect school and employment and therefore poverty - 160 million children under 5 are stunted, half of children in Madagascar are stunted - WaterAid having to intervene in order to guarantee sustainability and preventing stunting and malnutrition

Answer 154

in the 1980s the world bank and IMF gave loans to developing countries to privatise their water system to reduce costs but many have cancelled these projects as the water becomes unaffordable for a lot of people

Answer 155

- 50% average increase in water rates for SEMAPA customers (water company) led to many residents becoming opposed to privatisation - the smaller providers are given poorly constructed and deteriorating systems which have an estimated 35% of their water being lost to leaks - those outside the grid are forced to pay 5 to 10 times more than SEMAPA consumers

Answer 156

- current water charges are about 1/4 of european rates and 3/4 of American rates - the rates in OECD nations are often not high enough to cover basic utility operations and maintenance costs - almost 40% of Montreal's water is lost each year due to leaky infrastructure cost estimated to repair at $4 billion

Answer 157

- the highest prices for fresh water in the world as they believe that by setting high pries it will help the environment as they will appreciate its scarcity and true value, this leads to greater water conservation, water consumption has dropped dramatically however they have seen an economic strain as a result.

Answer 158

- water is essential in the production of most goods and services including food and energy, needed to ensure economic sustainability - industrial water supply must be reliable and predictable to support financially sustainable investment in economic activities, 400% water demand increase for manufacturing between 2000 and 2050 - agriculture or family run businesses depend on water for generating an income, water is important for reducing poverty through better health, increased poverty and time savings - most growth in water demand is being seen in BRIC nations - by 2050 food production will require 140% more water

Answer 159

- wetlands reduce floods, store water and provide economic benefits through fisheries and recreation, half are lost - forested highlands essential for recharging aquifers and ensuring clean flows for agriculture and HEP, deforestation and urbanisation - degraded ecosystems lose resilience leading to water quality degradation, e.g. Salton Sea in California, productive ecosystem which provides a food source for over 400 birds, since 2005 water levels have been dropping as evaporation exceeds inflow, salinity levels increasing - due to high demand water goes to agriculture and some inflow consists contaminated runoff from fields

Answer 160

- there are 263 transboundary rivers/lakes which account for 60% of global freshwater flow - there are 300 transboundary aquifers - 40% of the world's population lives within a river or lake drainage that extends over 2 or more countries - the developed upstream countries tend to pollute the poorer downstream countries water - 158 of the 263 transboundary water basins lack any type of cooperative management framework, political influence and power, infrastructure, capital

Answer 161

- geopolitical influence, 10 African countries - blue nile source originates from orographic rainfall in the great lakes region of Ethiopia, white nile originates from Lake No in South Sudan - longest river which goes through different climate zones - Ethiopia hopes to export HEP, develop damns, economic development

Answer 162

- in 1929 a nile agreement between Egypt and the UK granted signficant water allocations to Egypt and suns, it granted Egypt veto power over construction - Egypt gov have said that no construction projects may be undertaken on the nile without approval - in 1999 the nile countries except Eritrea signed the NBI in order to enhance cooperation over the use of the nile water resources - in may 2010 6 african countries signed the CFA agreement to share the nile water which led to strong opposition from Egypt and Sudan as they fear for their water rights and allocations

Answer 163

- in April 2011 the ethiopian PM announced the construction on the blue nile - Egyptian president said they would not accept any projects that would threaten their livelihood - an agreement was signed in 2015 for its construction but this did not help the broader issues seen through Egypt not signing the CFA - Ethiopia sees the dam as crucial for economic growth but Egypt and Sudan think it will greatly reduce their access to water - the dam will be the biggest in Africa, power to 65 million Ethiopians who have lack of electricity. - Sudan said that they have seen drop in flow in blue nile on their territory

Answer 164

- $1.8 billion project started in 2008, third largest HEP plant in Africa - EIA published two years after construction began potentially devastating impacts to downstream indigenous pops as it will prevent seasonal floods - more than 200,000 people rely on the Omo river for subsistence agriculture, floods replenish dry soils for planting for subsistence farming (Mursi population) - fears that water shortages could lead to violent conflicts, many tribes are armed - some argue this will largely benefit cocoa and sugar plantations downstream in lower omo valley, irrigation projects through artificial floods created - some say it will only benefit ethiopian state-owned companies, human rights violations by Ethiopian army for those locals who oppose the plantations, beatings - lots are unaware on its developments, not many details given to local pop environmental impacts - in 2011 UNESCO's world heritage committee called for construction to be halted due to its impact on Lake Turkana, natural world heritage site on the Kenyan-ethiopian border - reduces lakes levels by up to 10 metres, affecting up to 300,000 people and wildlife - increase water salinity, threats to drinking supply, fishing industry and lake ecosystem - lake Turkana's flow from the omo may reduce by up to 70%

Answer 165

- GAP is project worth $32 billion, an attempt to increase incomes in Anatolia- the least developed part of Turkey by developing an integrated water and energy supply system - led to conflicts with neighbours (syria, Iraq) through damming suphrates and tigris rivers which provide a lot of their water - international conflicts as turkey agreed to please water for syria but not for iraq - turkey to build Fizre dam to collect water before it crosses the border, by 2040 the tigris and Euphrates river will not reach the sea - cultural tragedy, profound geopolitical repercussions - flooding of homes, town of Hasankeyf, all water polluted - when the ataturk dam opened in 1992, it sparked diplomatic tensions, if they could exploit oil resources turkey could use their water - over 80% of Iraq's water goes to agriculture aims of the project: - construct 22 dams, 19 HEP plants, 2 water transfer tunnels - provide irrigation for 1.7 million hectares - diversify into cash crops (nuts, fruit, veg) - stop the migration of young people from the region through providing jobs - help Southeast Asian economy grow by 400% - help Turkish economy grow by 12%

Answer 166

- two rivers the Murray and darling, provides 75% of Australia's water, provides 40% of the nation's farm produce - under threat from increasing and competing demands, 5x increase in extraction since the 1920s - hard to manage as it goes through many different environments (desert to rainforests) - some areas experience deficits whilst others experience surpluses, not helped by variations in ENSO stakeholders: - urban residents in major cities - aquaculture, freshwater fishing - environmental groups, e.g. environment victoria - international heritage and conservation agencies - industrial users, e.g. mining industry

Answer 167

- in 2012 a new basin plan came into effect, aimed to strike a balance between access to water for communities in the basin and the provision of adequate water for the environment - the plan determines the amount of water that can be extracted for consumption both by the user and by state and federal Govs so there isn't a negative environmental impact on the groundwater and wetlands - disputes on the plan with some seeing irrigating farming shrinking so many that pop fell in one area by 18%, loss of 500 jobs

Answer 168

technological fixes- either involve large scale hard engineering projects (top down) or small scale innovations and appropriate technology (bottom up) attitudinal fixes- involves people changing their behaviour towards water use to conserve water

Answer 169

- the 3 gorges dam, china - the south-north water transfer project, china - Israel's desalination project

Answer 170

- built on the Yangtze River which flows west to east through south china - concrete and steel dam 2.3km long, made of 510k tonnes of steel - enables surplus water to build up and be diverted to northern china via the south-north transfer project positives: - the power generated by the 34 generators is equivalent to burning 25 million tons of crude oil or 50 million tons of coal - designed to control flooding on the Yangtze, improve water supply by regulating river flow, generate HEP for china's economic growth negatives: - very expensive, $35 billion - 632m squared of land flooded to form reservoir, displacing 1.3 million people from 1500 villages - water quality affected by waste from industry, sewage and farms - decomposing vegetation in the reservoir produces methane which is a strong greenhouse gas

Answer 171

Water transfer schemes involve the diversion of water from one drainage basin to another, either by diverting a river or constructing a large canal to carry water from one basin to another. - to provide water for Beijing region which has 35% of the population, 40% of the arable land but only 7% of water - 3 routes will transfer 25 billion m cubed of water from the Yangtze River to northern china: western route to the yellow river, an eastern route via a series of lakes and a central route - the cost is US$70 billion, due for completion by 2050 - Beijing has similar water scarcity to Saudi Arabia, just 100m cubed per person positives: - will boost economic development in Beijing - will reduce abstraction of groundwater (water tabled topped by 300m since the 70s) negatives: - 345,000 people displaced as submerges 370km squared of land - risks draining too much water from southern china which has also experienced water scarcity, creating conflict within china, drop in flow of up to 60% - eastern route runs through heavy industry so is likely to become more polluted - water supply might be too expensive for farmers to buy so they will continue to extracts groundwateri

Answer 172

- abstraction of sea water from the Mediterranean - water is either evaporated to leave behind the salts that make seawater unusable or undergoes reverse osmosis where water is pushed through a membrane to separate it from the salts - produces up to 600 tonnes of potable water per hour - technological advances in the development of the process of reverse osmosis and pioneering work on carbon nanotube membranes positives: - can provide a reliable supply for large settlements - 5 plants opened in 2013 aiming to provide 70% of Israel's domestic water supplies by 2030 - some plants are using solar power to run negatives: - each plant requires its own power station in order to boil the water, contributing to co2 emissions - produces vast amounts of brine that needs to be released back into the sea or disposed of which can potentially harm ecosystems

Answer 173

- running at full capacity yet it supplies just 15% of sydney's water needs - only has minimal impacts on the environment - globally there are 15,900 operational desalination plants producing about a million cubic metres of desalinated water

Answer 174

EQUITY - does it negatively affect those downstream? - fair accessibility and affordability for all - not affecting everyones well-being FUTURITY - conservation of water supplies so they dont run out - provides long term security - economically viable practises PUBLIC PARTICIPIATION - involves communities in decision making and implementation - appropriate technologies used so public can access ENVIRONMENT - protection of wetland ecosystems - restoration of lost and damaged ecosystems - carbon neutral, not polluting - tipping points

Answer 175

- minimise waste and pollution of water resources - ensure that there is access to safe water for all people at an affordable price - take into account the views of all water users - guarantee an equity;e distribution of water within and between countries - 38% of irrigated fields in California use drip - pipe leakage in cairo is 50% - pipe leakage in Israel is 9-10%

Answer 176

1) smart irrigation- slow supply of constant water, no waste, gives the minimum amount of water necessary for high yield, it is highly monitored traditional sprinklers are replaced by modern automated spray technology and advanced drip irrigation systems 2) virtual water- importing crops that have used water, instead of using large amounts of water to irrigate, you only use water for other uses, seen in very arid regions 3) rainwater harvesting- where people collect the rain falling on the roofs of dwellings and store it in butts for various domestic purposes, such as flushing toilets and watering the garden 4) recycling water with filtration technology - recycling sewage water and purifying it to be able to drink 5) attitudinal fix, charges increase to reflect actual costs- controlling the price of water to make people waste less

Answer 177

- local builders trained in the construction of rainwater harvesting jars which are made from locally available materials and have a capacity of 1500 litres - they collect rainfall from roofs and store water for dryer periods - once constructed, the jars can provide a stable water source for many years - organised by WaterAid that raises funds to improve access to safe water, sanitation and hygiene for the world's poorest people In Kitayita village, Uganda where 3000 people lack access to safe water

Answer 178

- they have the cutting edge of new technologies to re-use grey water, NEWater is recycled water that is treated using disinfectant, meets 30% of the current needs - leakages have been cut by 5% - Singapore still need to import water, they have an agreement until 2061 to important water from Malaysia - desalination of seawater, two plants now meet 25% of the water demand - they have also invested into agro technology in order to diversify their water supply (water harvesting)

Answer 179

- due to their climate, natural geography and politics it has formed them to manage their water efficiently - aim to transfer water from the sea of galilee to the centre of the country they have done this through: - smart irrigation, water drips slowly into roots, saves 25-75% pumped water compared to food , organised by Netafim - reducing agricultural consumption, importing water in food as visual water - adopting stringent conservation techniques - pricing water to discourage waste - Netafim says their crops yield 15% more due to the few amounts of fertilisers needed and therefore lower chemical pollution, drip tech releases fewer GGs than irrigation they acquire new supplies through: - importing 50 million tonnes fo water per year by ship from turkey (Manavgat Project) - piping seawater from the Red Sea and mediterranean to new inland desalination plants

Answer 180

- circular irrigation systems to grow enough wheat to feed itself and neighbours using water from its aquifers, levels fell in aquifers - wheat farms have been abandoned to reduce demands upon aquifers supplying irrigation waters

Answer 181

it is based on achieving a close cooperation between all players in order to get all players involved together to agree on policies/strategies that are balanced in order to ensure sustainable water management. it takes into consideration the whole drainage basin to build a framework that is holistic and sustainable. IWRM is said to work well at a community level but not so well in larger river basins, especially if an international boundary is involved, as seen in the case of the Colorado river

Answer 182

- the environmental quality of the rivers and catchment - that water is used with maximum efficiency - an equitable distribution of water among users

Answer 183

each player has a responsibility to minimise conflict and maximise cooperation. the UN sets Govs rules that need to be observed, NGOs have a role in monitoring potential conflict situations, TNCs, planners, water companies and environmentalists also all play a role in water management. The UN - United Nations economic commission for europe - established in Helsinki (1992-96) and promotes co-ordianted management of water in a sustainable water - the UN water courses convention aims to protect and ensure the quality, quantity and sustainable use of trans-boundary water resources by helping with co-operation and resolving issues - adopted the IWRM with a policy setting out that water resources are an integral component of ecosystems, a natural resource and socio-economic good The EU - water framework directive (WFD) and hydropower agreed in Berlin in 2000 - set targets to restore rivers, lakes, canals and coastal waters to 'good condition' - it promotes coordinated management of water, land and related resources in a sustainable way National government agencies (the Environment agency) - the environment agency checks compliance with EU frameworks, although this may change post-brexit - they help with waste management and flood risk in coastal areas

Answer 184

- high descending Hadley air, naturally very dry - facing aridification - supplies water to eight states, contains 11 major dams and reservoirs, irrigates 1.4 million hectares of farmland and provides drinking water for 50 million people - source from the orographic rainfall from the rocky mountains - chronically overused, surrounding aquifers depleting leading to reduced base flow - the Salton sea is shrinking due to demand in cities - lake mead, the largest reservoir in the world is at lowest ever levels - used to be 2 million acres of wetlands - there are 29 dams and numerous diversion projects now in existence - California have been forced to introduce irrigation restrictions and are looking into desalinisation, Nevada asking for extra water allocation

Answer 185

1922- seven states agreed a compact and the basin was divided into upper (source areas) and lower (demand areas) sections. water was then allocated by state. 1990- the lower basin US states used their full allocation for the first time making the issue worse, drier conditions meant there was not enough water to meet demands 1996- Arizona established a water baking authority with the aim of using its water share efficiently and storing surplus in aquifers within the state (creating a water bank) 1998- the colorado river stopped reaching the sea and the delta began to dry up reducing wetlands 2012- agreement called Minute 139 signed between USA and Mexico, giving the right to Mexico to store some of the colorado river to Lake Mead 2014- the river reached the sea for the first time in 16 years because water was released from the dams by releasing a pulse flow and sustaining base flows 2019- colorado river drought contingency plan signed by 7 states, they need to reduce their usage, only 10 year temporary plan, futurity?

Answer 186

- US citizens need to have a change in mentality, they view water as a right - domestic conservation, 30% of water could be saved by repairing leaks or metering supplies. planting drought-tolerant plants in gardens, using smart irrigation systems could save even more (follow Israel) - re-using waste water- from sewage treatment for landscape irrigation and industry, or to recharge aquifers - if smart planning were introduced then new housing would be permitted only where water supplies are adequate

Answer 187

- in 2012, the minute 139 plan helped to revive the delta and restore some normality - beginning to improve as people make changes, e.g. people in Las Vegas use turf instead of grass

Answer 188

- the rate of climate change is far greater than the IDBM's ability to mitigate change - irrigation still needs to be reduced and water recycling/smart irrigation should be implemented - attitudes must change as Americans believe they have a right to water and don't believe the views of climate change scientists should change their lifestyles

Answer 189

- cali gov + native americans - cali gov + Mexico - cali gov + environmental conservation scientists - farmers in cali + native americans - farmers in cali + environmental conservation scientists - local pop and climate change scientists - local pop and environmental conservation scientists

Answer 190

when renewable water supplies (from rivers, aquifers and lakes) become very low (less than 500mcubed per person per year). this leads to widespread restrictions.

Answer 191

when clean water is unaffordable even when its available

Answer 192

the total amount of a country's water resources (internal and external), both surface water and groundwater, which is generated through the hydrological cycle (precipitation)

Answer 193

it is the process by which dissolved solids in sea water are partially or completely removed to make it suitable for human use. recently there have been many technological advancements in the process of reverse osmosis in order to desalinise sea water

Answer 194

it is an area of land drained by a river and its tributaries, sometimes referred to as a river catchment. the boundary of a drainage basin is defined by the watershed. it is a subsystem within th global hydrological cycle which is an open system with external inputs and outputs.

Answer 195

the process of applying controlled amounts of water to plants at needed intervals, it is a highly monitored way of ensuring no waste

Answer 196

a measure of the ability of soil, sediments and rock to transport water horizontally and vertically

Answer 197

a surface that allows the percolation of water including the underlying soil

Answer 198

a surface that allows water to pass through it, such as sand

Answer 199

it is a large belt of high pressure around 30º north and south and is made up of mainly calm winds, creates trade winds and the westerlies, area of descending air

Answer 200

also known as aquifers, it is water held underground in the soil or in pores and crevices in rock

Answer 201

it is the circulation of water around the earth. it is a closed system of linked processes so there are no external inputs or outputs. this means that the amount of global water is finite and constant.

Answer 202

stores- they are reservoirs where water is held flows- the transfers of water from one store to another (measured in km cubed per year), the rate of flow between fluxes fluxes- the rates of flow between stores, the greatest fluxes occur over the oceans

Answer 203

arable to pastoral: compaction of soil by livestock increases overland flow pastoral to arable: ploughing increases infiltration by loosening and eating the soil

Answer 204

national or regional water budgets- useful indication fo the amount fo water that is available for human use local scale water budget- inform about available soil water (this is valuable to users such as farmers who can use it to identify when irrigation might be required and how much)

Answer 205

Desertification is the process by which once-productive land gradually changes into a desert-like landscape. It usually takes place in semi-arid land on the edges of existing deserts. It's not necessarily irreversible.

Answer 206

- Changing rainfall patterns with rainfall becoming less reliable, seasonally and annually. The occasional drought year sometimes extends to several years. - The vegetation cover becomes stressed and begins to die, leaving bare soil. - The bare soil is eroded by wind and the occasional intense shower. - When rain does fall, it is often only for short, intense periods. This makes it difficult for the remaining soil to capture and store it.

Answer 207

- low lying areas with impervious surfaces, such as cities - where the ground surface is underlain by impermeable rocks - where ice dams suddenly melt and the waters in glacial lakes are released

Answer 208

tidal flooding occurs due to storm surges or when high river flows meet particularly high spring tides in estuaries. . A storm surge is caused by very low air pressure which raises the height of the high-tide sea. Strong onshore winds then drive the 'raised' sea towards the coast, often breaching coastal defences and flooding large areas.

Answer 209

These include making greater use of floodplains as nature intended, as temporary stores of flood water, and using them only for nature conservation and perhaps agriculture and recreation.

Answer 210

local water conflicts- the water users (farmers, industrialists, households). their views may differ from the planners, environmentalists and water providers. transboundary- the governments and users of the water sources. sometimes it may be necessary to call in the mediating services of UN agencies

Answer 211

source area - Experiences drop in flow of up to 60% as a result of diversion/transfer - River experiences low flow and becomes polluted increasing impact on ecosystem's salinity - Climate change can combine with lower flows to lead to water scarcity receiving area - Availability of water simply leads to greater use - Promotes unsustainable irrigated farming by agri-business - Nitrate eutrophication, salination and ecosystem destruction. Pollution transfer.

Answer 212

Some social players see the provision of safe water as a human right, whereas politicians see it as a human need which they have to supply. Businesses will secure their water needs almost regardless of the costs, whereas environmentalists insist that provision should be sustainable.

Answer 213

it is when trade winds get weaker leading to the air circulation loop reversing with warm air moving from west to east so Peru gets wetter and Indonesia gets dryer

Answer 214

it is a current of rapidly moving air that is usually several thousand miles long and wide but is relatively thin

Answer 215

when water is abstracted at a rate that is faster than it can be naturally replenished

Answer 216

the biological process by which water is lost from plants through minute pores and transferred into the atmosphere