Topic 2 - EQ4 - Glaciation (Mr W)

Question 1

What are the 5 industries that glaciated landscapes have economic value for?

Answer 1

Farming, forestry, mining, HEP and tourism

Question 2

What industry categories do these 5 industries that glaciated landscapes hold economic value fall into?

Answer 2

Farming, forestry, mining - Primary
HEP - Secondary
Tourism - Tertiary

Question 3

Why do glaciated landscapes hold economic value for the farming industry?

Answer 3

The fertile clays and sands of glaciated landscapes allow great agricultural development. For example: the Mendoza province (mountains and glaciers in the west of the province) of Argentina is one of the country’s prime wine growing areas.

Question 4

Why do glaciated landscapes hold economic value for the forestry industry?

Answer 4

The steeper slopes unsustainable for agriculture and agricultural development (due to gradient) can be used to develop forestry. For example: the Southern Alps in New Zealand.

Question 5

Why do glaciated landscapes hold economic value for the mining industry?

Answer 5

The upland areas of glaciated landscapes are perfect for the development of quarries proving building stone and cement. For example: green slate from Honiston (Lake District) and cement from Exshaw Cement Works in Canada

Question 6

Why do glaciated landscapes hold economic value for the tourism industry?

Answer 6

• The ribbon lakes in the glacial troughs have proved to be an attractor of visitors in the Lake District
• In the glaciated landscape of the French Alps skiing in the slopes and glaciers has proven to be extremely successful with millions flocking from around Europe every year to ski in the Alps
• The flat valley floors of glacial troughs (e.g. Saas Grund in Switzerland) allow transport routes to be developed for tourists AND locals

Question 7

Why do glaciated landscapes hold economic value for the Hydro-Electric Power industry?

Answer 7

Glaciated landscapes offer the opportunity to develop HEP in sparsely populated areas. For example: the reservoir at Saas Mattmark which has an earth filled HEP dam made out of moraine material.

Question 8

For what 3 reasons do glaciated landscapes have environmental value?

Answer 8

• Biodiversity
• Water storage and role in global water cycle
• Habitat

Question 9

Why do glaciated landscapes hold environmental value in terms of biodiversity?

Answer 9

They have distinct ecosystems. For example, Greenland has a fragile biodiversity of endemic plants, large mammals such as polar bears and whales as well as as a diverse range of fish and birds (organisms and ecosystem also offer important opportunities for ecological and biological research).

Question 10

Why do glaciated landscapes hold environmental value in terms of the water cycle and water storage?

Answer 10

The cryosphere (ice) is an important store of water in the global water cycle, the vast majority of the cryosphere is glaciated landscapes. For example, Greenland ice sheet contains approximately 10% of the total global ice mass, therefore, it is an important store of global ice, if it were to melt it would cause sea level rises or up to 7m globally with devastating implications.

Also play a critical role in human water supply. Rivers around the globe are fed by glacial meltwater and supply water to populations to fulfil their demands. For example, Mekong river in China fed by Himalayan meltwater supplies water to high demand populations in China (world’s most populous country). Also, Arapaho glacier in Colorado produces 260 million gallons of drinkable water per year for the people of Boulder Colorado. Without meltwater historical population centres wouldn’t have been established where they are today, and modern settlements would likely not be as sustainable.

Question 11

Why do glaciated landscapes hold environmental value in terms of habitat?

Answer 11

Home to many species of animals as mentioned before (e.g. Polar Bears in Svalbard). However, also act as homes for migratory species. For example, the Yamal Peninsula in Russia provides a summer home for a variety of migratory bird species and thus plays a crucial role in worldwide food webs. (Bonus point: Yamal Peninsula also acts as a large scale carbon sink)

Question 12

Why do glaciated and periglacial landscapes have unique biodiversity?

Answer 12

The tundra environment is extreme with only a three month growing season and long, dark winters which only a few plants and animals can survive through, and so plants and animals are often endemic due to specialist adaptations to the climate. For example, the arctic Poppy’s flowers follow the sun, arctic fox has white fur.

Also, tundra ecosystems are more fragile because surface runoff is low and decomposition rates are low meaning that pollutants stay in the environment for a long time.

Question 13

What is phenology?

Answer 13

The timing of natural events and phenomena (e.g. first snowdrops appear) in relation to climate.

Question 14

What is the evidence to show the majority of the world’s glaciers are currently retreating?

Answer 14

• On the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains all the glaciers have lost 25-75% of their mass since 1850
• 38% decrease in glacier land coverage since 1949
• Approx 95% of Himalayan glaciers are retreating rapidly
• Satellites show Greenland Ice sheet retreat
• Massive loss in shelf ice in W and E Antarctica

Question 15

What region are glaciers actually advancing? Why?

Answer 15

Maritime glaciers in Scandinavia. In Scandinavia the elements of changing precipitation have contributed to a more positive mass balance.

Question 16

Why is retreat happening at an exponential rate in the vast ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica?

Answer 16

Positive feedback cycles.

Less ice = loss of albedo = reduced reflection = more atmospheric warming = more melting and retreat

Question 17

How is climate warming impacting on glaciated landscapes in different parts of the world?

Answer 17

• Rivers in Asia fed by meltwater (e.g. Mekong and Ganges) have lost their steady supply of meltwater which has had implications of India and China who have insatiable demands for water as home to 1/3 of the global population and rapidly growing economies. E.g. western China’s semi-desert area contains 350 million farmers dependent on Tibetan glaciers for water hence development of hard engineering projects, like South-North transfer, to improve water security. Indian meltwater decrease will affect nearly 40% of India’s irrigated land.
• 30% of water in Peruvian Andes comes from a meltwater source. This could result in an increased flood risk in summer due to spikes in temperature with more extreme temps with climate change, low levels of meltwater will limit HEP dam operation and changes in sediment yield.

Question 18

What are the 4 case studies of glacial landscapes with cultural, economic and environmental value?

Answer 18

Greenland (glacial landscape)
Russia’s Yamal Peninsula (periglacial landscape)
Lake District (relict glacial landscape)
Nepal’s Sagarmartha National Park (active glacial landscape)

Question 19

What is the value of Greenland? (Cul, Econ, Env)

Answer 19

Cultural: Help Inuit people maintain traditional way of life, immense value for scientific research
Economic: Meltwater provides huge potential for HEP, valuable natural resources exposed as ice retreats (oil, gas, metals…), tourism (especially from cruises)
Environmental: 10% of global ice mass, contributes 0.33mm per year to global sea level rise (if all melted would rise by 7m), albedo from ice regulates global climate

Question 20

What is the value of The Yamal Peninsula? (Cul, Econ, Env)

Answer 20

Cultural: Home of the Nenet people and has enabled them to live sustainable traditional lives, reindeer provides Nenet people with transport, clothing, hides for tents and meat
Economic: Nenet herder economy driven by sale of reindeer meat, reindeer herding supports more than 10,000 nomads, peninsula contains the biggest gas reserve on the planet (holding almost 1/4 of the world’s known gas reserve)
Environmental: Summer home for migratory bird species, permafrost is a carbon sink (however melting of permafrost with climate change is resulting in the release of many of these gases)

Question 21

What is the value of The Lake District? (Cul, Econ, Env)

Answer 21

Cultural: 2000km of footpaths and pedestrian rights of way in national park, Thirlsmere provides water to nearby Manchester and has done since the late 19th C, provides a place for a variety of recreational activities and is a top UK holiday destination
Economic: 16 million visitors every year prop up local economy (in 2014 visitors spent approximately £1.1 billion), services and infrastructure built to support tourism also benefits local people, Timber industry brings in money
Environmental: Evidence of former ice movement and past glacial periods (corries, drumlins, U shaped valleys), forested areas (e.g. around Thirlmere) is forested which reduces soil erosion which would lead to saltation of the reservoir, United utilities look after wildlife in Thirlmere and protect form pollution

Question 22

What is the value of The Sagarmartha National Park? (Cul, Econ, Env)

Answer 22

Cultural: Contains highest mountain on Earth (Everest), UNESCO world heritage site since 1979, home to 6000 Sherpa people, local Buddhists worship the Himalayan mountains of the park (believe they hold spiritual value)
Economic: Popular destination for mountain tourism (37000+ visitors in 2019) over 6000 have reached Everest’s summit, tourism has boosted economy which has in turn improved services, standards of living, education, infrastructure and healthcare, local Sherpas find employment as mountain guides
Environmental: Home to rare species (e.g. snow leopard), active glacial landscape so it has current and ever changing glacial features

Question 23

What are the physical threats to Greenland?

Answer 23

Global warming has caused significant ice loss, not only has this depletion in ice mass caused sea level rises but it has also destroyed the habitat for polar bears native to Greenland.

Question 24

What are the human threats to Greenland?

Answer 24

• Greenland could be opened up to large scale mining projects for uranium and rare Earth metals. This could irreversibly scar the glaciated landscape and radioactive waste from uranium mining would endanger fisheries and farmland vital to Greenlanders
• Increased shipping around Greenland as ice melts risks marine pollution and overfishing

Question 25

What are the physical threats to the Yamal Peninsula?

Answer 25

- Climate change has caused earlier spring melts and has delayed the autumn freeze affecting the reindeer herders ability to cross the frozen tundra - Permafrost thawing is affecting the wider carbon cycle, and is resulting in large sinkholes in the peninsula due to methane being released as permafrost thaws

Question 26

What are the human threats to the Yamal Peninsula?

Answer 26

- Infrastructure (built in 1980s) constructed to exploit the Bovanenkovo gas field destroyed pasture, forcing overgrazing of the tundra and disruption to migration routes leading to conflict between the Nenet people and gas companies and the Russian gov’t - Gazprom (majority state owned gas giant) developing a ‘Yamal Megaproject’ aiming to exploit the vast natural resources of the peninsula - New infrastructure evicts reindeer herders from their historical home

Question 27

What are the physical threats to the Lake District?

Answer 27

-Walkers destroy vegetation and compact the soil reducing infiltration rates -Footpaths expose soil leading to soil being washed away with heavy rain, increased storms with climate change will worsen this and will cause the washing of not only soil but farm chemicals too into lakes causing siltation and eutrophication -Greater damage to trees and forests with stronger winter gales and greater potential for summer forest fires with climate change -Gullies can form along footpaths increasing footpath erosion -

Question 28

What are the human threats to the Lake District?

Answer 28

- Additional tourist traffic causes congestion and pollution - Jobs in tourism are often seasonal and poorly paid - Increased demand for housing, especially second homes, which is driving up prices making it unaffordable for locals with lower wage jobs (1/5+ of houses in the NP are second homes)

Question 29

What are the physical threats to the Sagarmartha National Park?

Answer 29

- Retreating glaciers due to global warming (and glacial retreat can cause glacial outburst flooding) - Avalanches killing people (e.g. 6 guides killed in a 2014 avalanche) - Deforestation causing a loss of wildlife habitats, enables washing of nutrients from soil too and a disruption to water and air purification cycle

Question 30

What are the human threats to the Sagarmartha National Park?

Answer 30

- Greater demand for forest products like firewood which causes greater deforestation - Increased demand for new transport infrastructure as well as hotels and lodges (mainly for tourists) - Litter on mountains disrespecting the sanctity of the mountains for the Sherpa people (e.g. Everest camps with abandoned tents)

Question 31

Who are the 7 major stakeholders that we study in regards to glaciated landscapes?

Answer 31

- International Government Organisations - National and Local Governments - Native people’s (e.g. Inuits) - Tourists - Local businesses - TNCs - Pressure Groups (e.g. GreenPeace)

Question 32

Which stakeholders often favour total exploitation of glaciated landscapes?

Answer 32

TNCs (like major oil and gas companies that wish to utilise economic resources to maximise profits)

Question 33

Which stakeholders often favour sustainable exploitation of glaciated landscapes?

Answer 33

- Local businesses (need to use local economic resources for livelihoods) - Tourists (infrastructure for travel and accommodation whilst preserving natural beauty) - National and local governments (balance economic, social and environmental concerns of a multitude of stakeholders) - International government organisations (support international cooperation and sustainable economic activity)

Question 34

Which stakeholders often favour no exploitation of glaciated landscapes?

Answer 34

- Pressure groups like GreenPeace (often wish to conserve nature over all else) - Native peoples like Inuits (rely on environment in its natural state for way of life and have strong spiritual and cultural links to environment)

Question 35

What treaties/conventions promote total protection (no exploitation)? How?

Answer 35

The Antarctic Treaty of 1961 (signed by 53 nations). Sets aside Antarctica as a scientific reserve, bans military activity and exploitation for mineral resources from 1998 to 2048 (except for scientific research). Does recognise tourism as a legitimate activity in Antarctica but it regulates the industry extremely tightly requiring permits for tourist companies to operate.

Question 36

What treaties/conventions/projects promote sustainable exploitation? How?

Answer 36

Alpine Convention 1995 (signed by the Alpine Nations and the EU) Aims to balance the needs of 14 million residents and 120 million annual tourists for infrastructure and services, as well as economic development and the protection of the environment whilst developing the region. Many in the Swiss Mountain Cantons object to the convention claiming it protects the environment too much and not their interests. Zermatt Ski Resort in Switzerland It is very energy and water intensive (due to number of visitors). The preparation of the slopes for skiing also causes irreparable damage to the environment. However, it is sustainable in that it is car free, uses renewable energy and its buildings are designed to reduce energy consumption. Ski resort also home to 10 legally enforced wildlife sanctuaries and 6 protected forests. Sagarmartha National Park Mt Everest has strict rules and regulations protecting it, but still has lots of litter from climbers as well as footpath erosion, water pollution and lots of demand for forest products like firewood. The fact that it is a UNESCO world heritage site (since 1979), and a National Park means that it is protected on an additional level. At the same time, it provides employment for local Sherpa people (of which 6000 live in the National Park).

Question 37

Which project promote sustainable exploitation, in a less sustainable way (failed sustainable exploitation)? How?

Answer 37

The Lake District National Park Historically was forested, now cleared, historically meandering rivers have been straightened. Large areas of the National Park are flooded with tourists causing footpath erosion and many other complications (e.g. litter, traffic and traffic emissions as there are no regulations against vehicles in the park). The fact it is a national park gives it a degree of protection from total exploitation from TNCs... also been some attempts to re forest and protect the area.

Question 38

What approaches are needed in the management of climate change management of Glaciated landscapes? What are the two types of management?

Answer 38

Requires coordinated approaches at local , national and global scales. The two types of management are mitigation and adaptation.

Question 39

What are examples of climate change mitigation management to protect Glaciated landscapes?

Answer 39

- Switch economies to low carbon sources of energy and make economies more efficient in their use of energy - 2015 Paris Agreement was intended as a global commitment to limit global temperature rises to below 1.5°C (EU+184 countries signed up)

Question 40

What are examples of climate change adaption management to protect Glaciated landscapes?

Answer 40

- Changing land use planning to prevent development in high hazard risk areas (e.g. avalanche risk regions) - Relocating settlements, especially indigenous settlements - New regional agreements on how water will be used/shared between counties in glaciated areas - Growing new crops that require less water (if less water is available) - Improving water systems for natural hazards (e.g. Glacial Lake Outburst Floods, Avalanches...)

Question 41

Why is climate change a context risk?

Answer 41

The level of risk is affected by many different factors and will change from one set of circumstances (contexts) to the next. Risk is widespread nevertheless.

Question 42

What are some examples of national scale management of glaciated landscapes?

Answer 42

- 56% of Alaska has some protected status - All 8 Arctic countries have some degree of protection for their arctic territories - Around 1/3 of Finland’s Arctic region is protected with a system of National Parks for public access, and some are strict nature reserves

Question 43

How effectively is climate change managed on a global scale in relation to glaciated landscapes?

Answer 43

- Global interventions are restricted to specifics and ‘lack teeth’ - Developed countries often pledge funds to help developing nations with climate adaptation, similar pledges were not made for Arctic communities, particularly the indigenous people living there

Question 44

What are some examples of how climate change is managed on an international scale in glaciated landscapes?

Answer 44

- Antarctic Treaty of 1959 (and amendments) which protected Antarctic flora and fauna, marine loving resources and environmental protection - Intergovernmental Arctic Council (set up by 1996 Ottawa Declaration), strengthened by 2003 Polar code enabling stricter enforcement of environmental regulations in Arctic seas.