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biology > Topic 10: Diversity of Bacteria & Fungi (Part 1) Lecture 19 > Flashcards

Topic 10: Diversity of Bacteria & Fungi (Part 1) Lecture 19 Flashcards

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1
Q

metagenomics

A

prokaryotes, can use metagenomics to identify prokaryotic species in soil and even the human gut (called the microbiome)

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2
Q

plasmid

A

prokaryotes lacks membrane-bound organelles (contains a PLASMID within the nucleotide)
- a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that carries accessory genes separate from those of a bacterial chromosome

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3
Q

peptidoglycan

A

what bacterial cell walls are composed of

- Structural carbohydrate composed of sugars cross-linked with short polypeptides

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4
Q

capsule

A

what a cell wall is surrounded by

- Composed of polysaccharides and/ or protein

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5
Q

fimbriae (sing. Fimbria)

A

Some prokaryotes also have this

• Hairlike projections to anchor to hosts or substrata

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6
Q

Gram Staining

A

uses crystal violet dye and iodine, and alcohol rinse, and a final stain of red dye

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7
Q

Gram-positive

A

bacteria have simple cell walls > peptidoglycan

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8
Q

Gram-negative

A

bacteria have cell walls < peptidoglycan, but more lipopolysaccarhides

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9
Q

Endospores

A

are types of resistant cells produced by prokaryotes to survive harsh environments
- Bacterial cell replicates its DNA and surrounds it in a super resistant layer

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10
Q

Taxis

A

movement towards or away from a stimulus

- b/c prokaryotes can move within the environment

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11
Q

flagellum

A

prokaryotes can use this to move within the environment

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12
Q

binary fission

A

what prokaryotes reproduce via
- Under optimal conditions can divide every 1-3 hours
• Nutrient and space availability (quorum sensing), self-poisoning, competition limits colony cell

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13
Q

Obligate aerobes

A

need O2 for cellular respiration (prokaryotes)

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14
Q

Obligate anaerobes

A

are poisoned by O2

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15
Q

anaerobic respiration

A

is the process of producing cellular energy without oxygen (or fermentation)

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16
Q

Facultative anaerobes

A

use O2 when available but will carry out fermentation or anaerobic respiration when oxygen is absent

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17
Q

nitrogen fixation

A

prokaryotes can also carry out nitrogen fixation -> converting N2 to NH

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18
Q

heterocysts

A

prokaryotes have specialised cells called heterocysts in photosynthetic
prokaryotes to carry out N-fixation

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19
Q

microbiome

A

Diverse nutritional modes allow diverse bacteria to inhabit the human gut (called out microbiome) for prokaryotes

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20
Q

extremophiles

A

Archaea are prokaryotes that inhabit some of the harshest environments (we call these extremophiles)

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21
Q

Halophile

A

“salt loving”, live in super haline (salty) places

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22
Q

Thermophile

A

“heat loving”, thermal vents, geysers, volcanic hot springs (think Yellowstone)

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23
Q

Acidophile

A

“acid loving”, human gut, volcanic features

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24
Q

Methanogen

A

release methane (many archea also live in moderate environments)
• Found in marshes, cattle guts (cow farts)
• Important decomposers in the environment

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25
Q

heterotrophs

A

Like animals, fungi are heterotrophs

- an organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or substances derived from them

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26
Q

yeasts

A

The most common fungal body structures are multicellular or single cells (yeasts)

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27
Q

Hyphae (sing. Hypha)

A

(sing. Hypha) -> tiny tubular filaments surrounding the plasma membrane
- a fungi structure

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28
Q

Mycelium

A

a mass of hyphae that maximises
SA:volume ratio
- a fungi structure

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29
Q

Fruiting body

A

reproductive structure

- a fungi structure

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30
Q

Cell walls

A

composed of chitin (nitrogen-containing polysaccharide)

- a fungi structure

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31
Q

chitin

A

what fungi cell walls are composed of

- (nitrogen-containing polysaccharide)

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32
Q

septate

A

divided, allowing large macromolecules to pass between hyphal cells
- 1 of the ways hyphae occur in fungi

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33
Q

coenocytic

A

(lacking septa) with a continuous cytoplasmic mass

- 1 of the ways hyphae occur in fungi

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34
Q

Mycorrhizae

A

are specialised fungi that form associations with plants

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35
Q

Ectomycorrhizal

A

forms sheaths of hyphae around plants roots

- type of mycorrhizal fungi (specialized fungi)

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36
Q

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (endomycorrhizal)

A

Have branched hyphae called arbuscules that penetrate plant host cells to exchange nutrients
- type of mycorrhizal fungi (specialized fungi)

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37
Q

arbuscules

A

penetrate plant host cells to exchange nutrients (within the arbuscular mycorrhizal (arbuscules)

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38
Q

spores

A

what fungi reproduce via

- which can be produced sexually (meiospores) or asexually (mitospores)

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39
Q

meiospores

A

fungi reproduce via spores, which can be produced sexually (meiospores)

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40
Q

mitospores

A

fungi reproduce via spores, which can be produced asexually (mitospores)

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41
Q

Haplontic

A

dominantly haploid stage

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42
Q

Diplontic

A

dominantly diploid stage

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43
Q

Dikaryotic

A

“two nuclei”, a transition stage between haplontic and diplontic where plasmogamy (fusion of cytoplasms from parental mycelia) has occurred, but karyogamy (fusion of nuclei, thus completing fertilisation) has not

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44
Q

plasmogamy

A

(fusion of cytoplasms from parental mycelia) has occurred in the dikaryotic life stage

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45
Q

karyogamy

A

(fusion of nuclei, thus completing fertilisation) has not occurred in the dikaryotic life stage

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46
Q

heterokaryon

A

When the fungus is in the dikaryotic stage, we say it is a heterokaryon since its mycelium contains two genetically different nuclei within its cytoplasm

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47
Q

Opisthokonts

A

Animals, fungi, and protistan relatives form a monophyletic clade called the Opisthokonts (opistho = flagellal position)

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48
Q

nucleariids

A

Fungi more related to single-celled protistan relatives (nucleariids) than animals proper

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49
Q

Describe Chytrids

A

• Phylum: Chytridiomycota
• ~1000 species
• Found in LAKES and SOILS, hydrothermal VENTS
• Most are DECOMPOSERS, but SOME are PATHOGENIC
- Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans attacks amphibians and has decimated their populations
• SOME chytrids are MUTUALISTIC
- Live in the guts of sheep to help break down plant matter
• ALL chytrids have flagellated ZOOSPORES (spores that move)
• Have CELL WALLS of CHITIN

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50
Q

zoospores

A

All chytrids have flagellated zoospores (spores that move)

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51
Q

Describe the Zygomycetes “moulds” basic features.

A
  • Phylum: Zygomycota
  • ~1000 species
  • Found in SOILS and AIR
  • Most are FAST-growing moulds, MICROSCOPIC
52
Q

Sporangia

A

produces spores

- in the zygomycetes “moulds”

53
Q

Zygosporangia

A

produces the zygote (zygospore)

- in the zygomycetes “moulds”

54
Q

Describe the Glomeromycetes basic features.

A

Phylum: Glomeromycota (formerly
Zygomycota)
• ~200 species
• Found in SOILS and AIR

55
Q

Describe the Ascomycetes “sac fungi” basic features.

A

Phylum: Ascomycota
• ~65,000 species
• Found in MARINE, FRESHWATER, and TERRESTRIAL HABITATS
• Can be UNICELLULAR YEASTS, or MULTICELLULAR FUNGI
• Saprotrophs, pathogens, mutualists, mycorrhizal

56
Q

ascocarps

A

Fruiting body of ascomycetes “sac fungi”

57
Q

ascospores

A

Ascomycetes “sac fungi” produces ascospores (sexual) in asci (sing. ascus)

58
Q

asci (sing. ascus)

A

Ascomycetes “sac fungi” produces ascospores (sexual) in

ASCI (sing. ascus) - which is a saclike spore capsule located at the tip of a dikaryotic hypha of a sac fungus

59
Q

Describe Ascomycete life cycle (asexual & sexual stage)

A

life cycle follows the standard fungal cycle

Asexual Stage:
• Conidiospores are produced in structures
called conidiophores (compare with the
sporangia in Zygomycetes)

• Sexual Stage:
• Ascospores (sexual spore) are produced in
dikaryotic asci contained within ascocarps
• Contain 8 ascospores per ascus
• Conidia may be involved in sexual
reproduction of a – conidiospore meets up
with a + conidiospore

60
Q

Conidiospores

A

asexual stage of ascomycete fungi:

  • CONIDIOSPORES are produced in structures called conidiophores (compare with the sporangia in Zygomycetes)
  • in the asexual stage of Ascomycete
61
Q

conidiophores

A

asexual stage of ascomycete fungi:

  • conidiospores are produced in structures called CONIDIOPHORES (compare with the sporangia in Zygomycetes)
  • in the asexual stage of Ascomycete
62
Q

Describe Basidiomycetes “club fungi”

A

Phylum: Basidiomycota
• ~30,000 species
• Contain PUFFBALLS, “MUSHROOMS”, SHELF FUNGI
• Saprotrophs, pathogens (rusts and smuts), mutualists, mycorrhizal

63
Q

basidiocarps

A

Fruiting body: basidiocarps containing “gills”

- for the basidiomycetes “club fungi”

64
Q

basidiospores

A

Produces BASIDIOCARPS (sexual) in dikaryotic basidia (sing. basidium) contained on the gills

65
Q

basidia

A

Produces basidiospores (sexual) in dikaryotic BASIDIA (sing. basidium) contained on the gills

66
Q

Describe the Basidiomycete life cycle

A

Basidiomycete life cycle follows the
standard fungal cycle

• Asexual Stage: none or very rare
• Sexual Stage:
• Basidiospores (sexual spore) are produced
in dikaryotic basidia contained within
basidiocarps
• Contain 4 basidiospores per basidium
67
Q

Chemotaxis

A

response to a chemical

68
Q

Positive chemotaxis

A

towards a chemical

69
Q

Negative chemotaxis

A

away from a chemical

70
Q

probiotics

A

We consume probiotics to help establish healthy populations of “good” bacteria

71
Q

What are the 2 domains of life that prokaryotes span?

A

bacteria & archaea

72
Q

What are some of the most extreme habitats on Earth that Prokaryotes live?

A

• Tailing ponds from mining
• Super salty deserts and lakes (ie Great Salt Lake
in Utah)
• Under glaciers in the Arctic and Antarctic
• Thermal vents surrounding volcanic features
• Human gut (very acidic!)

73
Q

What is evidence that prokaryotes are the most abundant organisms on the planet?

A
  • 1g of soil can hold more prokaryotes than the number of people who ever lived during Earth’s history
  • Can use metagenomics to identify prokaryotic species in soil and even the human gut (called the microbiome)
74
Q

What are some common characteristics of prokaryotes?

A
  • 0.5 - 5μm in size (exception Thiomargarita namibiensis is 750 μm across!)
  • Unicellular
  • Lacks membrane-bound organelles (contains a plasmid within the nucleoid)
  • Come in three main shapes:
    • Coccoid (spherical) – Coccus sp.
    • Bacilli (rod-shaped) – Bacillus sp.
    • Spiral – Spirillum sp.
75
Q

What are the 3 main shapes that prokaryotes come in?

A
  • Coccoid (spherical) – Coccus sp
  • Bacilli (rod-shaped) – Bacillus sp.
  • Spiral – Spirillum sp.
76
Q

Do prokaryotes have a cell wall? And ALSO explain about the bacterial and archaeal cell walls

A

• Have a cell wall (yes)

• Bacterial cell walls are composed of peptidoglycan
- Structural carbohydrate composed of sugars cross-linked with short polypeptides

• Archaeal cells walls are composed of other complex sugars and proteins but lack peptidoglycan

77
Q

What is the capsule composed of? What does it allow? What does it protect?

A
  • Composed of polysaccharides and/ or protein
  • Allows adherence to substrata or each other within the colony
  • Protects against desiccation and bacteriophages(viruses)
78
Q

Some prokaryotes also have fimbriae (sing. fimbria)…what does that entail?

A

Hairlike projections to anchor to hosts or substrata

79
Q

What is gram staining?And ALSO explain the 2 types.

A

• Gram Staining uses crystal violet dye and
iodine, and alcohol rinse, and a final stain
of red dye
• Gram-positive bacteria have simple cell walls >
peptidoglycan
• Gram-negative bacteria have cell walls <
peptidoglycan, but more lipopolysaccarhides

80
Q

Describe how both gram-negative & gram positive FUNCTION.

A
  • Gram-negative bacteria are:
  • More toxic due to the lipopolysaccharides
  • More protected due to outer lipopolysaccharide layer
  • More anti-biotic resistant
    • Many antibiotics disrupt the peptidoglycans in the cell….no peptidoglycans, no disruption!
  • Some gram-positive strains are also resistant
  • “Super bugs” such as Staphylococcus aureus (ie MRSA)
81
Q

What are the functions of endospores (in prokaryotes)?

A
  • Can survive boiling water
    • Need extreme heat and pressure to kill
  • Can remain dormant for centuries
82
Q

How can prokaryotes move within the environment?

A
  • Taxis – movement towards or away from a stimulus

* Can use a flagellum

83
Q

Describe the different types of taxis

A
  • Chemotaxis -> response to a chemical
    * Positive chemotaxis -> towards a chemical
    * Negative chemotaxis -> away from a chemical
84
Q

Compare & contrast flagella in prokaryotes to eukaryotic, bacteria & archea flagella. ALSO what is the structure of the flagella?

A
  • Much thinner than eukaryotic flagella and not covered with an extension of the plasma membrane
  • Bacteria and archaea flagella differ in protein composition
  • The structure of the flagella across the 3 domains suggest they arose independently -> they are analogous structures!
85
Q

Describe how prokaryotes reproduce

A

• Reproduce via binary fission
• Under optimal conditions can divide
every 1-3 hours
• Nutrient and space availability (quorum sensing), self-poisoning, competition limits colony cell

86
Q

What are the diverse nutritional adaptions allowing Prokaryotes to inhabit diversely harsh environments? Describe all 4 of them

A
  • Obligate aerobes need O2 for cellular respiration
  • Obligate anaerobes are poisoned by O2
  • Acquire energy from fermentation or anaerobic respiration
  • Facultative anaerobes use O2 when available but will carry out fermentation or anaerobic respiration when oxygen is absent
87
Q

What can prokaryotes also carry out to help adapt to diverse nutritional modes?

A
  • Can also carry out nitrogen fixation -> converting N2 to NH3
  • Have specialised cells called heterocysts in photosynthetic prokaryotes to carry out N-fixation
88
Q

Diverse nutritional modes allow diverse bacteria to inhabit the human gut (called out microbiome). Describe this AND its function

A
  • Contain ~10 trillion bacteria in our guts
  • Are MUTUALISTS -> break down food that we cannot
  • We can absorb the nutrients they break down in exchange for our blood cells producing anti-microbial compounds to reduce competition and keep only the “good” bacteria
  • We consume probiotics to help establish healthy populations of “good” bacteria
89
Q

Why do we consume probiotics?

A

to help establish healthy populations of “good” bacteria

90
Q

Archaea are prokaryotes that inhabit some of the harshest environments. What do we call these?

A

extremophiles

91
Q

What are the 3 extremophiles? Describe

A
  • Halophile -> “salt loving”, live in super haline (salty) places
  • Thermophile -> “heat loving”, thermal vents, geysers, volcanic hot springs (think Yellowstone)
  • Acidophile -> “acid loving”, human gut, volcanic features
92
Q

Many archaea also live in moderate environments. What is this called?

A

Methanogen -> release methane

93
Q

Where are methanogens found? AND why are they important?

A
  • Found in marshes, cattle guts (cow farts)

* Important decomposers in the environment

94
Q

Describe the basics of fungi. How many, what they look like, where they are found, and what they do etc.

A
  • There are ~ 100,000 species of identified fungi
    • Could be up to 1.5 million species!
  • Fungi can be single-celled, microscopic, filamentous or macroscopic
  • Found in all habitats, both terrestrial and aquatic
  • Fungi are the nutrient recyclers within the ecosystem, breaking down decaying organic matter
95
Q

Like animals, fungi are…

A

heterotrophs
- an organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or substances derived from them
• Animals -> ingestion
• Fungi -> absorption (aka feed via absorption)

96
Q

How do fungi absorb their food?

A
  • Secrete hydrolytic enzymes into the ENVIRONMENT which breaks down nutrients
  • Secrete enzymes to penetrate CELL WALLS of host cells, allowing fungi to get nutrients through parasitism and infection
  • Can break down a variety of COMPOUNDS, including lignin and cellulose (which animals cannot digest)
97
Q

What can fungi be?

A

can be saprotrophs (decomposers), parasites, pathogens, mutualists

98
Q

What are the most common fungal body structures?

A

are multicellular or single cells (yeasts)

99
Q

What are the several structures that fungi are composed of?

A
  • Hyphae (sing. Hypha)
  • Mycelium
  • Fruiting body
  • Cell walls
100
Q

What are the 2 forms hyphae can occur in?

A
  • septate (divided, allowing large macromolecules to pass between hyphal cells)
  • coenocytic (lacking septa) with a continuous cytoplasmic mass
101
Q

What is mycorrhizae AND what are the 2 types?

A

are specialised fungi that form associations with plants

  1. Ectomycorrhizal
  2. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (endomycorrhizal)
102
Q

What does mycorrhizal mycelia do?

A

increase the surface area and efficiency of absorbing phosphate ions and other minerals in the soil
• More efficient than plant roots

103
Q

What do plants provide the fungus in exchange?

A

In exchange, plants provide the fungus ORGANIC NUTRIENTS

104
Q

Many mycorrhizal fungi look like…

A

regular “mushrooms”

105
Q

How do fungi reproduce?

A

via spores, which can be produced sexually (meiospores) or asexually (mitospores)

106
Q

Fungi alternate between sexual and asexual cycles in three main life stages:

A
  • Haplontic -> dominantly haploid stage
  • Diplontic -> dominantly diploid stage
  • Dikaryotic -> “two nuclei”, a transition stage between haplontic and diplontic where plasmogamy (fusion of cytoplasms from parental mycelia) has occurred, but karyogamy (fusion of nuclei, thus completing fertilisation) has not
107
Q

What do we say when the fungus is in the dikaryotic stage?

A

When the fungus is in the dikaryotic stage, we say it is a heterokaryon since its mycelium contains two genetically different nuclei within its cytoplasm

108
Q

What is the evidence or phylogenetics that has suggested fungi originated from a flagellated unicellular aquatic protist ancestor?

A
  • Animals, fungi, and protistan relatives form a monophyletic clade called the Opisthokonts (opistho = flagellal position)
  • Fungi more related to single-celled protistan relatives (nucleariids) than animals proper
109
Q

What do Nucleariids consist of?

A

of amoebas that feed on algae and bacteria

110
Q

DNA evidence suggests that animals are more related to another group of…

A

protists (choanoflagellates) than to either fungi or nucleariids
• We can conclude then that multicellularity evolved independently in animals and fungi

111
Q

What is the hyphae in the Zygomycetes “moulds”?

A

• Hyphae are COENOCYTIC with septa ONLY in reproductive hyphae

112
Q

What is the reproduction features in the Zygomycetes “moulds”?

A
  • Sporangia -> produces spores

* Zygosporangia -> produces the zygote (zygospore)

113
Q

What is the hyphae in Glomeromycetes “mycorrhizae”?

A

Hyphae are COENOCYTIC

114
Q

What is the reproduction features in the Glomeromycetes “mycorrhizae”?

A

Spores look similar to zygospores

115
Q

What are most in Glomeromycetes “mycorrhizae”?

A

Most are arbuscular mycorrhizal

116
Q

What is a common bread mould within Zygomycetes “moulds”?

A

Rizopus stolonifer is a common bread mould

117
Q

About how many plants are associated with Glomeromycetes “mycorrhizae”?

A

About 80% plants associate with Glomeromycota

118
Q

What does molecular evidence discern about the Glomeromycetes “mycorrhizae”?

A

Molecular evidence however has discerned that the Glomeromycota is its own monophyletic clade

119
Q

What is the hyphae in Ascomycetes “sac fungi”?

A

Hyphae are septate

120
Q

What is the reproduction features in Ascomycetes “sac fungi”?

A
  • Fruiting body: ascocarps

* Produces ascospores (sexual) in asci (sing. ascus)

121
Q

What is the hyphae in Basidiomycetes “club fungi”?

A

Hyphae are septate

122
Q

What is the reproduction features in Basidiomycetes “club fungi”?

A
  • Fruiting body: basidiocarps containing “gills”

* Produces basidiospores (sexual) in dikaryotic basidia (sing. basidium) contained on the gills

123
Q

When conditions are optimal for reproduction in Basidiomycetes “club fungi” can…

A

ESTABLISH WITHIN HOURS

124
Q

Some chytrids are MUTUALISTIC which means they…

A

Live in the guts of sheep to help break down plant matter

125
Q

What is the reproduction features in chytrids?

A

ALL chytrids have flagellated ZOOSPORES (spores that move)

biology (25 decks)

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