theories of the family

Question 1

name the 3 ways religion can be defined

Answer 1

• substantive
• functional
• social constructionist

Question 2

outline evaluations of the substantive definitions of religion

Answer 2

• defining R in this way leaves no room for beliefs and practices that perform similar functions to R but don’t involve God
• the substantive definition also has a western bias of what R should be

Question 3

outline the functional definitions of religion

Answer 3

• functional definitions define R in terms of social or psychological functions it performs for individuals/ society
• e.g. Durkheim: defines R in terms of its contribution to social integration
• the functional definition is inclusive to a wide range of beliefs + practices

Question 3

outline the substantive definitions of religion

Answer 3

• these focus on the content/ substance of religious belief
• e.g. Weber defines religion as belief in superior power that is above nature + cant be scientifically explained
• sub. definitions draw a clear line between religious + non-religious beliefs, (religious beliefs include belief in God/ supernatural)

Question 4

outline evaluations of the functional definitions of religion

Answer 4

• just because an institution helps integrate individuals, this doesn’t make it a R.
• e.g. collective chanting at a football game might give an individual a sense of integration, but that doesn’t make it a R

Question 5

outline the constructionist definitions of religion

Answer 5

• social constructionists take an interpretivist approach that focuses on how members of society define R. they think its not possible to produce a single universal definition of R
• Ints research about how the definitions of R can be contested – e.g. Aldridge investigates Scientology and how several Govts have banned it
• constructionists don’t assume that R always involves a belief in God

Question 5

(func) outline the functionalist view of R

Answer 5

• functionalists view society as a system of interrelated parts/ social institutions – like R – that contributes to maintaining social order

Question 6

(func) outline Durkheim’s concept of totemism in R

Answer 6

• D believed that the essence of all R is founded through studying its simplest form – clan society. D studied Arunta, an Aboriginal tribe
• the clan consists of rituals worshipping a sacred totem which is the clan’s emblem (a design symbolising the clan’s origins/ identity)
• D argues that the clan’s worship of the totem is their worship of society

Question 6

(func) name the 4 aspects Durkheim’s outlines on R

Answer 6

• the scared and the profane
• totemism
• the collective conscience
• cognitive functions of religion

Question 7

(func) outline Durkheim’s concept of the scared and the profane in R

Answer 7

• a key feature of R is the fundamental difference between the sacred + the profane
• the sacred: things set apart that inspire feelings of awe/ fear/ wonder. These things evoke powerful feelings because they are symbols representing something of a great power – which can only be society. Thus, people are worshipping society through these scared symbols which unites believers
• the profane: things that have no significance; ordinary + mundane things

Question 8

(func) outline Durkheim’s concept of cognitive functions of R

Answer 8

• D sees R as a source of social solidarity + our intellectual capacities for sharing thoughts through shared categories that R provides
• R is the origin of the concepts + categories we need for reasoning, understanding the world + communication

Question 8

(func) outline Durkheim’s concept of the collective conscience in R

Answer 8

• sacred symbols represent society’s collective conscience (shared norms)
• regular shared religious rituals reinforce the CC + maintain social integration

Question 9

(func) outline criticisms of Durkheim’s view of R

Answer 9

• the evidence of totemism is unsound – Worsley: notes that there is no sharp division between the sacred + the profane. e.g. different clans can use the same totem
• D’s theory is harder to apply to large scale societies with multiple religions as it doesn’t explain conflict between religions
• Postmodernists: argue that D’s ideas cant be applied to contemporary society as increasing diversity has fragmented the CC so there’s no shared value system for R to reinforce

Question 10

(func) outline Malinowski’s psychological functions of religion

Answer 10

• Malinowski agrees with Durkheim that R promotes solidarity, but M thinks it does this by performing psychological functions, like helping people cope with emotional stress

Question 11

(func) what are the 2 types of situations that Malinowski thinks R performs a psychological role

Answer 11

1) where the outcome is important but is uncontrollable: Ms studied Tobriand islanders
- lagoon fishing: is safe and uses predictable + successful methods of poisoning – uses no ritual
- ocean fishing: is dangerous + uncertain, always accompanied by ‘canoe magic’ (rituals to ensure success + safety). This gives people a sense of control + confidence + reinforces group solidarity
2) at times of life crisis:
- R helps to minimise the disruption in events such as birth, marriage, esp death
- e.g. the notion of immortality gives comfort to the grieving by denying the fact of death. M argues death is the main reason for R belief

Question 12

(func) how does Parsons say that R creates + legitimates society’s central values

Answer 12

• R does this by sacralising (giving value to) society’s central values
• this serves to promote a value consensus and thus social stability
• e.g. in USA Protestantism sacralised core American values of meritocracy, individualism etc

Question 12

(func) outline Parson’s concept of values and meaning

Answer 12

• like Malinowski, Parsons sees R as helping individuals to cope with unforeseen events + uncontrollable outcomes
• P identifies 2 other functions of R:
  1) creating + legitimising society’s central values
  2) being the primary source of meaning

Question 13

(func) how does Parsons say R is the primary source of meaning

Answer 13

• it answers ‘ultimate’ questions about society, like why the good suffer
• R provides the answers to these and so enables people to adjust to adverse events or circumstances + maintains stability

Question 13

(func) what does Bellah say about civil religion

Answer 13

• Bellah: CR integrates society in a way that churches/ denominations (e.g. Catholicism) cannot
• CR claims the loyalty of all Americans as it involves loyalty to the nation state + a belief in God and it unites all Americans
• it does this through traditions and rituals like the national anthem + the phrase ‘one nation under God’

Question 14

(func) outline the concept of civil religion

Answer 14

• a civil religion is a belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society, for example in the USA, CR is a faith in Americanism

Question 15

(func) what is an evaluation of civil religion

Answer 15

• can CR actually be considered a R if its not based on a belief in the supernatural

Question 16

(func) outline functional alternatives to R

Answer 16

• func alternatives are non-religious beliefs + practices that are equivalent to that of organised R
• e.g. reinforcing shared values / maintaining social cohesion
• for example, Nazi Germany had secular / non-R political beliefs through which they united society

Question 17

(func) outline AO3 evaluations of Functionalist views of R

Answer 17

• Func ignores the negative aspects that R performs, such as a source of oppression for the poor or women
• it ignores R as a source of divisions + conflict, esp in modern societies with multiple religions - they dont always promote integration

Question 18

(Marx) outline the Marxist view of religion

Answer 18

• in the context of Marx’s general view of society (class divisions, capitalism etc), R is a feature of only class divided societies and maintains inequalities

Question 19

(Marx) outline R as an ideology

Answer 19

• Marx believes that R operates as an ideological tool used by the RC to legitimise the suffering of the poor as inevitable and God-given
• R misleads the poor into accepting their low status as its virtuous + that their rewards will come in the afterlife

Question 19

(Marx) define ideology

Answer 19

• ideology = a belief system that distorts peoples perception of reality in ways that serve the interests of the RC

Question 20

(Marx) what does Lenin say about R

Answer 20

• Lenin describes R as ‘spiritual gin’ - an intoxicant doled out to the masses by the RC to confuse + keep them in their place
• the RC uses R to manipulate the masses and keep them from revolting by creating a ‘mystical fog’ that obscures reality

Question 20

(Marx) what is a Christian quote that justifies the class divide

Answer 20

• “it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than it is for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven”

Question 21

(Marx) outline R and alienation

Answer 21

• R is the product of alienation
• alienation involves becoming separate from something that one has created
• under Cap, workers are alienated as they have no control over the production process

Question 22

(Marx) outline R as an opiate

Answer 22

• Marx says how R acts as an opiate to dull/ mask the pain of exploitation instead of treating the cause
• R’s promise of the afterlife distracts attention from the true source of suffering - capitalism

Question 23

(Marx) outline AO3 evaluations of Marxist views of R

Answer 23

• Marx ignores the positive functions of R. such as psychological adjustment to misfortune
• some Marxists such as Althusser rejects the concept of alienation as its unscientific/ based on a romantic idea
• R does not necessarily function effectively as an ideology to control the population - it has a limited impact

Question 24

(Fem)