religion in a global context Flashcards
1
Q
outline the characteristics of fundamentalism
A
- Fundamentalists: appeal to tradition + dwell on a ‘Golden Age’ of the past
- they seek a return to the basics/ fundamentals of their faith
- religious fundamentalism is different to traditional religion - RF only arises where trad beliefs + values of R are threatened/ challenged by modern society + esp by the impact of an increasingly globalised economy
- threat to trad beliefs can be external - e.g. through capitalist globalisation, rise of Western culture, military invasion
- can also come internally - e.g. when sections of society adopt new secular ideas, e.g. liberal attitudes to sexuality + gender
- there are 7 key features of fundamentalism
2
Q
name the 7 key features of fundamentalism
A
1) authoritative sacred text
2) ‘us vs them’ mentality
3) aggressive reaction
4) use of modern technology
5) patriarchy
6) prophecy
7) conspiracy theories
2
Q
outline Aldridge’s view of an authoritative sacred text as a characteristic of fundamentalism
A
- Aldridge: no text speaks for itself; it has to be interpretated - what Fundamentalists hold to be true isn’t the text itself, but their interpretation of its meaning
- they interpret the Bible solely as a set of historical facts + prophecies about the future, ignoring other interpretations of it as poetry, metaphorical, symbolic etc
2
Q
outline an authoritative sacred text as a characteristic of fundamentalism
A
- for Christian Fundamentalists, every word of the Bible is true + valid for eternity + contains answers to all life’s questions - the text is inerrant (w/o error) + not open to questioning
- e.g. Christian Fundamentalism requires belief in the Virgin Birth of Christ, his divinity, his bodily resurrection from death - all of which are outlined in the Bible
- only those who accept these as historical facts are true Christians
- Fundamentalists are intolerant of all other views + refuse to engage in rational argument with them
3
Q
outline an ‘us vs them’ mentality as a characteristic of fundamentalism
A
- Fundamentalists separate themselves from the rest of the world + refuse to compromise with it
- Davie: they seek to establish islands of certainty against what they see as social + cultural chaos
4
Q
outline aggressive reactions as a characteristic of fundamentalism
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- Fundamentalist movements aim to draw attention to the threat to their beliefs + values, so their reactions are aggressive + intended to shock, intimidate or cause harm
- authoritative leaders, e.g. clergy + elders, who interpret the sacred text, are important in giving direction to the reactions
5
Q
outline use of modern technology as a characteristic of fundamentalism
A
- although Fundamentalists oppose modern culture, which they see as corrupted by secularism, liberalism, materialism etc, they are keen to use modern technology to achieve their aims
- e.g. computers, internet, Televangelism, military weaponry
6
Q
outline the prophecy as a characteristic of fundamentalism
A
- Christian fundamentalists proclaim the relevance of biblical prophecies to modern day events
- they believe that the ‘last days’ will soon by upon us, when the faithful dead will be resurrected + transported to heaven with the faithful living, before the 7 yr rule of the Antichrist + the ultimate defeat of Satan in the War of Armageddon
6
Q
outline the patriarchy as a characteristic of fundamentalism
A
- Hawley: fundamentalists favour a world in which control over women’s sexuality, reproductive powers, and their social economic roles, is fixed for all time by divine decree
7
Q
outline fundamentalism and modernity
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- Davie: fundamentalism occurs when traditional orthodox beliefs + values are threatened by modernity - thus, fundamentalists are a product of modernity
- Giddens: F is the product of/ reaction to globalisation, which undermines trad social norms of the family, gender etc - e.g. prohibition of sex before marriage
- in late modern society, inds are constantly faced with choices, uncertainty + risk - fundamentalism promises rigid, dogmatic beliefs + certainty
7
Q
outline conspiracy theories as a characteristic of fundamentalism
A
- Fundamentalists are often attracted to conspiracy theories; the idea that powerful, hidden, evil forces + organisations are in control of human destiny
- Aldridge: some extreme Christian + Islamic fundamentalists hold antisemitic conspiracy theories that believe Jews are conspiring to achieve world domination
8
Q
outline cosmopolitanism
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- Giddens: contrasts fundamentalism with cosmopolitanism (a way of thinking that embraces modernity + globalisation)
- cosmopolitanism is tolerant of others’ views, open to new ideas, constantly reflects on + modifies beliefs with society (‘reflexive thinking’)
- it requires people to justify their views through use of rationality + evidence rather than sacred texts
- one’s lifestyle is seen as a personal choice rather than something prescribed by a religion
- C religion + spirituality emphasises the pursuit of personal meaning + self-improvement
8
Q
outline responses to postmodernity
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- Bauman: sees fundamentalism as a response to postmodernity
- PM society brings freedom of choice uncertainty, + heightened awareness of risk - undermining old uncertainties grounded in tradition
- Castells: distinguishes between 2 responses to postmodernity
9
Q
outline AO3 evaluations of Giddens + Bauman + Castells
A
Beckford criticises Giddens, Bauman + Castells on several grounds;
- they distinguish too sharply between cosmopolitanism + fundamentalism - ignore hybrid movements
- they are ‘fixated on fundamentalism’ + ignore other important developments - e.g. how globalisation is also affecting non-fundamentalist Rs altogether
- Giddens lumps diff types of fundamentalism together, ignoring important differences between them
- Haynes: we shouldn’t focus on the idea that Islamic fundamentalism is a reaction from globalisation - is often due to failure of elite to improve standard of living
9
Q
outline Castells 2 responses to postmodernity
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- Castells distinguishes between 2 responses to postmodernity;
1) resistance identity: a defensive reaction from those who feel threatened + retreat into fundamentalist communities
2) project identity: the response of those who are forward-looking + engage with social movements, e.g. Feminism
10
Q
outline monotheism and fundamentalism
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- Bruce: the main cause of F is the perception of R traditionalists that today’s globalising world threatens their beliefs
- however, Bruce views F as too confined to monotheistic Rs (believing in 1 God) - there are also polytheistic Rs (believing in many Gods), e.g. Hinduism, which are unlikely to produce F
11
Q
why are polytheistic religions less likely to produce fundamentalism
A
- Bruce argues its because MRs are based on a notion that God’s will as revealed through an authoritative sacred text - e.g. Bible
- whereas PRs lack a single, all powerful deity/ a single text, and so there is more scope for different interpretations + none have an over-riding claim to an absolute truth
12
Q
outline the two fundamentalisms
A
- Bruce argues that while all fundamentalists share the same characteristics, e.g. belief in the literal truth os a sacred text, different fundamentalist movements may have different origins
- some are triggered by changes within society, while others are a response to changes imposed externally
- Bruce illustrates this with examples of Christian and Islamic fundamentalism with the West and developing countries
13
Q
outline Bruce’s view of the two fundamentalisms in developing countries
A
- in developing countries, fundamentalism is usually a reaction to changes being thrust upon society externally - e.g. in the Islamic Revolution in Iran
- F is triggered by modernisation + globalisation in which ‘Western’ values are imposed by foreign capitalism or by local elites supported by the West
- here, F involves resistance to the states attempts to side line it/ confine it to the private sphere
13
Q
outline Bruce’s view of the two fundamentalisms in the West
A
- in the West, fundamentalism is often a reaction to change taking place within society, esp the trend towards diversity + choice
- e.g. the New Christian Right in America has developed in opposition to family diversity, sexual promiscuity, gender equality + abortion etc
- it aims to reassert ‘true’ religion + restore it to a public role where it can shape the laws + morals of society
14
Q
outline secular fundamentalism
A
- alternatively, Davie: argues that recent decades has seen the mergence of secular forms of fundamentalism
- D links this to changes in the nature of modern society + distinguishes between 2 phases of modernity
- Davie concludes that both R + secular movements can become fundamentalist as a result of greater uncertainties of life in late/postmodern society in which reasserting truth + certainty is increasingly sought after
15
Q
outline Davie’s first phase giving rise to religious fundamentalism
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- this phase stretched from the time of the philosophical movement known as the Enlightenment Era in the late 18thC to the 1960s
- Enlightenment philosophy held a secular belief in the power of science + human reason to improve the world
- this Enlightenment Project dominated European thought + helped secularise all areas of social life, attacking + undermining religious certainties
- R fundamentalism is one reaction to this secularisation process
15
Q
outline Davie’s second phase giving rise to secular fundamentalism
A
- since the 70s, the optimism of the Enlightenment project has come under attack - the result of a growing mood of pessimism + uncertainty
- this mood is the product of the insecurity caused by changes, e.g. globalisation, environmental concerns, collapse of communism in 1989
- this has led to a loss of faith in major secular Enlightenment ideologies, e.g. Liberalism + rationalism, whose claims to truth + belief in progress have been undermined
16
Q
outline the result of secular fundamentalism
A
- as a result, these secular ideologies are struggling for survival, just like trad R - D says they are ‘past their sell-by date’
- as with R when it came under attack, some supporters of secular ideologies, e.g. nationalism, have also been attracted to fundamentalism
- e.g. the disintegration of communist Yugoslavia in the 90s led to a secular nationalist fundamentalism that justified ethnic cleansing of territory to create a separation (us vs them)
17
Q
outline the clash of civilisations
A
- recently, R has played an important role in a number of global conflicts - Huntington: such conflicts are symptoms of a ‘clash of civilisations’
- R differences between civilisations are now a major source of conflict - globalisation has made nations less important as a source of identity, creating a gap that R has filled
- simultaneously, globalisation inc contact between civilisations, increasing likelihood of conflict + R differences are harder to resolve than political ones as they are deeply rooted in culture + history
- Huntington: R differences are creating hostile ‘us vs them’ relationships, with inc competition between civilisations for economic + military power - e.g. in Middle East
- Huntington esp sees the West as under threat from Islam, of which has been criticised
18
Q
outline secular fundamentalism in West Europe
A
- in West Europe, perceived R challenges to liberal secular values have provoked a secular fundamentalist reaction
- e.g. in 2004, France banned pupils from wearing religious symbols in schools, 2015 politicians banned serving pork in schools, on the grounds that all pupils must be treated equally + R must be kept out of the public sphere - this discriminated against Muslims + Jews
- Ansell: these trends are a from of cultural racism that uses the apparently liberal language of universal equality + social integration, while denying racist aims - its really about preserving the dominant groups cultural identity + way of life + legitimates exclusion of R + cultural minorities
19
Q
(clash of civilisations) name Huntington’s 7 civilisations
A
1) Western
2) Islamic
3) Slavic-Orthodox (Russia + East Europe)
4) Latin American
5) Confucian (China)
6) Japanese
7) Hindu
- each has a shared cultural background + history and are closely identified with one of the world’s great religions
20
Q
name some examples of clash of civilisations
A
- 9/11
- civil war in former Yugoslavia in 90s w/ Croatian Catholics, Serbian Christians and Bosnian Muslims
21
Q
outline 3 AO3 evaluations of Huntington’s clash of civilisations
A
- Jackson: H’s work is an example of ‘orientalism’ - a Western ideology that stereotypes Eastern nations + people (esp Muslims) as untrustworthy, inferior + serves to justify exploitation and human rights abuses by the West
- Casanova: H’s view is simplistic + ignores important R divisions within the civilisations he identifies - e.g. between Sunni + Shi’a Islam
- Horrie + Chippindale: views the ‘clash of civilisations’ as misleading ideology that portrays the whole of Islam as the enemy
22
Q
outline cultural defence
A
- Bruce: sees one function of R as cultural defence - where R unites communities against external threats, giving R an important political role
- in such situations, R holds significance as it symbolises the groups collective identity
- there are 2 main examples of R as a cultural defence; in Poland + Iran, which demonstrates how R is used to defend national identity from political domination by an external power
- in these countries’ cases, R has to be understood in a transnational context
22
Q
outline the real clash of civilisations
A
- Huntington suggests that Muslims hold fundamentally different, anti-democratic values from those of the West - but evidence indicates the opposite
- from the World Values Survey, Inglehart + Norris concludes that the issue that divides the West + Muslim world isnt democracy, but gender + sexuality
- support for democracy is similar in both, but there are great differences when it comes to attitudes to divorce, abortion, gender equality and gay rights
- West has more liberal attitudes, but the Muslim world has remained traditional
- I+N notes that these divergent values constitute the real clash of civilisations between Muslims + West
22
Q
outline the example of Poland as an example of cultural defence
A
- from 1945-89, Poland was under communist rule of the USSR, in which the Catholic church was suppressed but continued to embody Polish national identity
- the church served as a popular rallying point for opposition to the USSR + Polish communist party
- church also lent its support to the Solidarity free trade union movement in the 80s that made effort to bring down communism
- after 1989, the church regained a public role + has had significant influence on Polish politics since
22
Q
outline the example of Iran as an example of cultural defence
A
- Western capitalist powers + oil companies long held influence over Iran, e.g. their involvement in the illegal overthrow of the democratic govt in the 50s to install a pro-West regime under Shah
- in the 60-70s, the Shah of Iran’s successor attempted a policy of modernisation + Westernaisation (e.g. banning the veil) - however, modernisation widened the wealth gap + protest was suppressed
- change was rapidly imposed from above, causing suffering - Islam became the focus for resistance to Shah’s regime
- the 1979 revolution brought the creation of the Islamic Republic, in which clerics held state power + imposed Islamic law
22
Q
outline Haynes’ view of the example of Iran as an example of cultural defence
A
- however, Haynes argues that the Iranian revolution was untypical of the Middle East, as it was led by religious leaders
- e.g. in countries like Saudi Arabia, R leaders are closely tied to the elite, who are tied to the West’s imperialism
- thus, R local leaders are typically opposed by R fundamentalists
22
Q
outline God and globalisation in India
A
- globalisation has enabled rapid economic growth + has seen India become a more important figure in global politics
- G has also brought new found prosperity to some groups - e.g. India’s MC
22
Q
what is the percent of the global population who are Hindu
A
- 85% of the worlds population is Hindu
22
Q
outline Hinduism and consumerism
A
- globalisation has created a huge + prosperous, scientifically educated, urban MC in India working in science/ tech tied into the global economy
- these are the people who secularisation theory predicts will be the first to abandon R in favour of atheism
23
Q
outline Nanda’s view of Hinduism and consumerism
A
- Nanda: majority of the upcoming, educated Indian MC continue to believe in the supernatural/ R
- 2007 survey found that Indians were becoming more R + Nanda notes how it’s becoming fashionable to be R
- the rise of R growth reflects the growth in religious tourism - e.g. visits to temples, shrines
- another feature of this MC religiosity is that they are attracted to previously low-status village gods/ goddesses worshipped by poor, as they are seen as being more responsive to people’s needs than trad Hindu ‘great gods’
23
Q
outline the findings of a 2007 survey in relation to Hinduism and consumerism
A
- the survey found that Indians are becoming more religious
- only 5% said their religiosity had declined in the last 5yrs, while 30% said they had become more religious
- also found that urban educated Indians are more R than their rural + illiterate counterparts
23
Q
outline Nanda’s explanation of the rise of religion in India
A
- Nanda rejects poverty + existential insecurity as an explanation, because they aren’t poor
- she also rejects the idea that their religiosity is a defensive reaction to modernisation + Westernisation - Indian MC are optimistic about opportunities brought by globalisation
- Nanda argues their increasing religiosity is the result of their ambivalence (uncertainty) from their newfound wealth
23
Q
outline Nanda’s view of the ambivalence of Hindus
A
- Nanda: the ambivalence from the Indian MC stems from a tension between the trad Hindu belief in renunciation of materialism + worldly desires, and the new middle class
- this is resolved by the modern holy men + tele-gurus who preach the message that desire isn’t bad, but is a manifestation of divinity that motivates people to do things
- gurus also propose business-friendly versions of Hinduism to ease the guilt by teaching that MC consumerism can be ‘spiritually balanced’ by paying for extravagant R rituals
- modern versions of Hinduism thus legitimate the MC + allows them to adjust to globalised consumer capitalism
23
Q
outline Hindu ultra-nationalism
A
- Nanda also examines the role of Hinduism in legitimating a boastful version of Indian nationalism - e.g. the Pew Global Attitude Survey
- Nanda: India’s success in the global market is increasingly attributed to the superiority of ‘Hindu values’ - a view constantly promoted by politicians + media, as well as the idea that Hinduism is the essence of Indian culture + identity
- in this Hindu ultra-nationalism, the worship of Hindu gods has become worship of the nation of India - Hinduism has become a ‘civil religion’
23
Q
the _ _ Attitude Survey: found that _% of Indians agreed that ‘our people are not perfect, but our _ is superior to others’ - higher than any other country
A
- the Pew Global Attitude Survey: found that 93% of Indians agreed that ‘our people are not perfect, but our culture is superior to others’ - higher than any other country
23
Q
what is a negative affect of Hindu ultra-nationalism
A
- Nanda points out how this increasing Hindu ultra-nationalism creates a widening gulf between Hindus + non-Hindu minorities
23
Q
(ultra-nationalism) outline Hinduism’s penetration of public life
A
- Hinduism has also penetrated public life, so that India, a supposed secular state, is increasingly influenced by R
- e.g. ‘Hindu sciences’ such as astrology are being taught as academic subjects in universities + used to predict natural disasters
- e.g. the Ministry of Defence is sponsoring the development of weapons with ‘magical powers’ mentioned in ancient Hindu texts
23
Q
outline capitalism in East Asia
A
- in recent decades, ‘East Asian tiger economices’ (e.g. South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan), have industrialised + become significant players in the global economy - China is now a major global industrial power
- the success of capitalism in East Asia has led sociologists to argue that R has played a role similar to one Calvinism played in the development of capitalism in the 16th-17thC Europe
23
Q
outline Redding’s view of capitalism in East Asia
A
- Redding: describes the spirit of capitalism among Chinese entrepreneurs in the tiger economics
- their ‘post-Confucianism’ (Confucianism is a trad Chinese belief system) values encourage hard work, self-discipline, frugality + a commitment to education and self-improvement
- the effect of this value system is similar to that of the Protestant Ethic, as it leads to economic productivity + accumulation of econ capital
23
Q
outline Pentecostalism in Latin America
A
- Berger: Pentecostalism in Latin America acts as a ‘functional equivalent’ to Weber’s Protestant Ethic, as it encourages the development of capitalism today in the same ways as Calvinism in 16-17thC Europe
- LA Pentecostalists embrace a work ethic + lifestyle similar to that of Calvinists - it demand asceticism, hard work and abstinence from alcohol, which encourages members to prosper + become upwardly mobile
- Berger agrees with Weber that an ethic like Protestantism is necessary to promote econ development of which can be led by an active minority, e.g. Pentecostalists
23
Q
(Pentecostalism in Latin America) what does Berger disagree with Weber about
A
- Berger, however, underlines Weber’s theory in that religious ideas are not enough alone to produce economic development - natural resources are also needed
- e.g. while Pentecostalism has grown in Brazil, the region lacks resources + remains backward
- in contrast, the south is developing rapidly in aid of Pentecostalism + natural resources
23
Q
outline global and local Pentecostalism
A
- in the last few centuries, Christianity has globalised out of Europe + into South America and Africa
- Lehmann: distinguishes between 2 phases in this explanation;
1) 1st phase: Christianity accompanied colonisation + was imposed on indigenous populations, by suppressing
2) 2nd phase: over the last century, Chr has spread as it gained a popular following from below
23
Q
by _, there were _ Pentecostals in _
A
- by 2020, there were 195 million Pentecostals in South America
23
Q
outline Lehmann’s explanation for the success of global and local Pentecostalism
A
- Lehmann: the success of Pentecostalism as a global R is in part due to its ability to incorporate local cultures + beliefs - it preaches a similar global message but draws on local imagery + symbolism + beliefs
- e.g. Pentacostalists attack spirit possession cults as the work of the devil + minsters conduct exorcisms to rid people of evil spirits - this validates local traditional beliefs, whilst giving believers access to a greater power (of the Christian Holy Spirit)
- this allows P to create new local R forms, rathe than simply replacing existing local beliefs with an imported one - as 1st phase did
23
Q
outline Christianity/ Pentecostalism in Africa
A
- in Africa, Pentecostalism forming local religions has led to the ‘Africanisation’ of Christianity rather than a total disappearance of indigenous Rs
- this adaptability to local customs + establishment of local identity shows Pentecostalism to have local diversity around the world
24
Q
outline the role of Pentecostalism in developing countries
A
- Pentecostalism has also been successful in developing countries because its able to appeal to the poor who make up the majority of the population, + because it uses global media to spread its message
