religion in a global context Flashcards
1
Q
outline the characteristics of fundamentalism
A
- Fundamentalists: appeal to tradition + dwell on a ‘Golden Age’ of the past
- they seek a return to the basics/ fundamentals of their faith
- religious fundamentalism is different to traditional religion - RF only arises where trad beliefs + values of R are threatened/ challenged by modern society + esp by the impact of an increasingly globalised economy
- threat to trad beliefs can be external - e.g. through capitalist globalisation, rise of Western culture, military invasion
- can also come internally - e.g. when sections of society adopt new secular ideas, e.g. liberal attitudes to sexuality + gender
- there are 7 key features of fundamentalism
2
Q
name the 7 key features of fundamentalism
A
1) Authoritative sacred text
2) ‘Us vs them’ mentality
3) Aggressive reaction
4) Use of modern technology
5) Patriarchy
6) Prophecy
7) Conspiracy theories
Aliens Usually Argue Under Purple Pineapple Clouds
2
Q
outline Aldridge’s view of an authoritative sacred text as a characteristic of fundamentalism
A
- Aldridge: no text speaks for itself; it has to be interpretated - what Fundamentalists hold to be true isn’t the text itself, but their interpretation of its meaning
- they interpret the Bible solely as a set of historical facts + prophecies about the future, ignoring other interpretations of it as poetry, metaphorical, symbolic etc
2
Q
outline an authoritative sacred text as a characteristic of fundamentalism
A
- for Christian Fundamentalists, every word of the Bible is true + valid for eternity + contains answers to all life’s questions - the text is inerrant (w/o error) + not open to questioning
- e.g. Christian Fundamentalism requires belief in the Virgin Birth of Christ, his divinity, his bodily resurrection from death - all of which are outlined in the Bible
- only those who accept these as historical facts are true Christians
- Fundamentalists are intolerant of all other views + refuse to engage in rational argument with them
3
Q
outline an ‘us vs them’ mentality as a characteristic of fundamentalism
A
- Fundamentalists isolate themselves from the rest of the world + refuse to compromise with it
- Davie: they seek to establish islands of certainty against what they see as social + cultural chaos
4
Q
outline aggressive reactions as a characteristic of fundamentalism
A
- Fundamentalist movements aim to draw attention to the threat to their beliefs + values, so their reactions are aggressive + intended to shock, intimidate or cause harm
- authoritative leaders, e.g. clergy + elders, who interpret the sacred text, are important in giving direction to the reactions
5
Q
outline use of modern technology as a characteristic of fundamentalism
A
- although Fundamentalists oppose modern culture, which they see as corrupted by secularism, liberalism, materialism etc, they are keen to use modern technology to connect + recruit people
- e.g. joining extremist organisations, e.g. ISIS
6
Q
outline the prophecy as a characteristic of fundamentalism
A
- Christian fundamentalists proclaim the relevance of biblical prophecies to modern day events
- they believe that the ‘last days’ / day of judgement will soon by upon us, the only way to be protected is through faith
6
Q
outline the patriarchy as a characteristic of fundamentalism
A
- Hawley: fundamentalists favour a world in which control over women’s sexuality, reproductive powers, and their social economic roles, is fixed for all time by divine decree
7
Q
outline fundamentalism and modernity
A
- Davie: fundamentalism occurs when traditional orthodox beliefs + values are threatened by modernity - thus, fundamentalists are a product of modernity
- Giddens: F is the product of/ reaction to globalisation, which undermines trad social norms of the family, gender etc - e.g. prohibition of sex before marriage
- in late modern society, inds are constantly faced with choices, uncertainty + risk - fundamentalism promises rigid, dogmatic beliefs + certainty
7
Q
outline conspiracy theories as a characteristic of fundamentalism
A
- Fundamentalists are often attracted to conspiracy theories; the idea that powerful, hidden, evil forces + organisations are in control of human destiny
- Rs people conspire against groups to make them scapegoats - e.g. homosexuals
- Aldridge: some extreme Christian + Islamic fundamentalists hold antisemitic conspiracy theories that believe Jews are conspiring to achieve world domination
8
Q
outline cosmopolitanism
A
- Giddens: contrasts fundamentalism with cosmopolitanism (a way of thinking that embraces modernity + globalisation)
- cosmopolitanism is tolerant of others’ views, open to new ideas, constantly reflects on + modifies beliefs with society (‘reflexive thinking’)
- it requires people to justify their views through use of rationality + evidence rather than sacred texts
- one’s lifestyle is seen as a personal choice rather than something prescribed by a religion
- C religion + spirituality emphasises the pursuit of personal meaning + self-improvement
8
Q
outline responses to postmodernity
A
- Bauman: sees fundamentalism as a response to postmodernity
- PM society brings freedom of choice uncertainty, + heightened awareness of risk - undermining old uncertainties grounded in tradition
- Castells: distinguishes between 2 responses to postmodernity
9
Q
outline AO3 evaluations of Giddens + Bauman + Castells
A
Beckford criticises Giddens, Bauman + Castells on several grounds;
- they distinguish too sharply between cosmopolitanism + fundamentalism - ignore hybrid movements
- they are ‘fixated on fundamentalism’ + ignore other important developments - e.g. how globalisation is also affecting non-fundamentalist Rs altogether
- Giddens lumps diff types of fundamentalism together, ignoring important differences between them
- Haynes: we shouldn’t focus on the idea that Islamic fundamentalism is a reaction from globalisation - is often due to failure of elite to improve standard of living
9
Q
outline Castells 2 responses to postmodernity
A
- Castells distinguishes between 2 responses to postmodernity;
1) resistant identity: a defensive reaction from those who feel threatened + retreat into fundamentalist communities, e.g. Amish community
2) project identity: the response of those who are forward-looking + engage with social movements, e.g. Feminism
10
Q
outline monotheism and fundamentalism
A
- Bruce: the main cause of F is the perception of R traditionalists that today’s globalising world threatens their beliefs
- however, Bruce views F as too confined to monotheistic Rs (believing in 1 God) - there are also polytheistic Rs (believing in many Gods), e.g. Hinduism, which are unlikely to produce F
11
Q
why are polytheistic religions less likely to produce fundamentalism
A
- Bruce argues its because MRs are based on a notion that God’s will as revealed through an authoritative sacred text - e.g. Bible
- whereas PRs lack a single, all powerful deity/ a single text, and so there is more scope for different interpretations + none have an over-riding claim to an absolute truth
12
Q
outline the two fundamentalisms
A
- Bruce argues that while all fundamentalists share the same characteristics, e.g. belief in the literal truth os a sacred text, different fundamentalist movements may have different origins
- some are triggered by changes within society, while others are a response to changes imposed externally
- Bruce illustrates this with examples of Christian and Islamic fundamentalism with the West and developing countries
13
Q
outline Bruce’s view of the two fundamentalisms in developing countries
A
- in developing countries, fundamentalism is usually a reaction to changes being thrust upon society externally - e.g. in the Islamic Revolution in Iran
- F is triggered by modernisation + globalisation in which ‘Western’ values are imposed by foreign capitalism or by local elites supported by the West
- here, F involves resistance to the states attempts to side line it/ confine it to the private sphere
13
Q
outline Bruce’s view of the two fundamentalisms in the West
A
- in the West, fundamentalism is often a reaction to change taking place within society, esp the trend towards diversity + choice
- e.g. the New Christian Right in America has developed in opposition to family diversity, sexual promiscuity, gender equality + abortion etc
- it aims to reassert ‘true’ religion + restore it to a public role where it can shape the laws + morals of society
14
Q
outline secularisation + fundamentalism
A
- alternatively, Davie: argues that recent decades have seen the emergence of secular forms of fundamentalism
- D links this to changes in the nature of modern society + distinguishes between 2 phases of modernity
- Davie concludes that both R + secular movements can become fundamentalist as a result of greater uncertainties of life in late/postmodern society in which reasserting truth + certainty is increasingly sought after - e.g. EDL
15
Q
outline Davie’s 1st phase giving rise to religious fundamentalism
A
- 1st phase: Enlightenment;
- Enlightenment Era from the 1700s helped secularise society + inc belief in power of science + rationality to improve the world
- this Enlightenment Project dominated European thought + helped secularise all areas of social life, attacking + undermining religious certainties
- R fundamentalism is one reaction to this secularisation process
15
Q
outline Davie’s 2nd phase giving rise to secular fundamentalism
A
- 2nd phase:
- since the 70s, the optimism of the Enlightenment project has come under attack - the result of a growing mood of pessimism + loss of faith in major secular ideologies, e.g. Liberalism, whose claims to truth + belief in progress have been undermined
- this mood is the product of the insecurity caused by changes, e.g. globalisation, environmental concerns
- Ansell: cultural racism is increasing in disguise - or not, e.g. English Defence League
16
Q
outline the result of secular fundamentalism
A
- as a result, these secular ideologies are struggling for survival, just like trad R - D says they are ‘past their sell-by date’
- as with R when it came under attack, some supporters of secular ideologies, e.g. nationalism, have also been attracted to fundamentalism
- e.g. the disintegration of communist Yugoslavia in the 90s led to a secular nationalist fundamentalism that justified ethnic cleansing of territory to create a separation (us vs them)
17
outline the clash of civilisations
- recently, R has played an important role in global conflicts - Huntington: such conflicts are results of a 'clash of civilisations'
- R differences between civilisations are now a major source of conflict - globalisation has made nations less important as a source of identity, creating a gap that R has filled
- simultaneously, globalisation inc contact between civilisations, increasing likelihood of conflict + R differences are harder to resolve than political ones as they are deeply rooted in culture + history
- Huntington: R differences are creating hostile 'us vs them' relationships, with inc competition between civilisations for economic + military power - e.g. in Middle East
- Huntington esp sees the West as under threat from Islam, of which has been criticised
18
outline secular fundamentalism in West Europe
- in West Europe, perceived R challenges to liberal secular values have provoked a secular fundamentalist reaction
- e.g. in 2004, France banned pupils from wearing religious symbols in schools, 2015 politicians banned serving pork in schools, on the grounds that all pupils must be treated equally + R must be kept out of the public sphere - this discriminated against Muslims + Jews
- Ansell: these trends are a from of cultural racism that uses the apparently liberal language of universal equality + social integration, while denying racist aims - its really about preserving the dominant groups cultural identity + way of life + legitimates exclusion of R + cultural minorities
19
(clash of civilisations) name Huntington's 7 civilisations
1) Western
2) Islamic
3) Slavic-Orthodox (Russia + East Europe)
4) Latin American
5) Confucian (China)
6) Japanese
7) Hindu
- each has a shared cultural background + history and are closely identified with one of the world's great religions
20
name some examples of clash of civilisations
- 9/11
- civil war in former Yugoslavia in 90s w/ Croatian Catholics, Serbian Christians and Bosnian Muslims
21
outline 3 AO3 evaluations of Huntington's clash of civilisations
- Jackson: H's work is an example of 'orientalism' - a Western ideology that stereotypes Eastern nations + people (esp Muslims) as untrustworthy, inferior + serves to justify exploitation and human rights abuses by the West
- Casanova: H's view is simplistic + ignores important R divisions within the civilisations he identifies - e.g. between Sunni + Shi'a Islam
- Horrie + Chippindale: views the 'clash of civilisations' as misleading ideology that portrays the whole of Islam as the enemy
22
outline cultural defence
- Bruce: sees one function of R as cultural defence - where R unites communities against external threats, giving R an important political role
- in such situations, R holds significance as it symbolises the groups collective identity
- there are 2 main examples of R as a cultural defence; in Poland + Iran, which demonstrates how R is used to defend national identity from political domination by an external power
- in these countries’ cases, R has to be understood in a transnational context
22
outline the real clash of civilisations
- Huntington suggests that Muslims hold fundamentally different, anti-democratic values from those of the West - but evidence indicates the opposite
- from the World Values Survey, Inglehart + Norris concludes that the issue that divides the West + Muslim world isnt democracy, but gender + sexuality
- support for democracy is similar in both, but there are great differences when it comes to attitudes to divorce, abortion, gender equality and gay rights
- West has more liberal attitudes, but the Muslim world has remained traditional
- I+N notes that these divergent values constitute the real clash of civilisations between Muslims + West
22
outline the example of Poland as an example of cultural defence
- from 1945-89, Poland was under communist rule of the USSR, in which the Catholic church was suppressed but continued to embody Polish national identity
- the church served as a popular rallying point for opposition to the USSR + Polish communist party
- church also lent its support to the Solidarity free trade union movement in the 80s that made effort to bring down communism
- after 1989, the church regained a public role + has had significant influence on Polish politics since
22
outline the example of Iran as an example of cultural defence
- Western capitalist powers + oil companies long held influence over Iran, e.g. their involvement in the illegal overthrow of the democratic govt in the 50s to install a pro-West regime under Shah
- in the 60-70s, the Shah of Iran’s successor attempted a policy of modernisation + Westernaisation (e.g. banning the veil) - however, modernisation widened the wealth gap + protest was suppressed
- change was rapidly imposed from above, causing suffering - Islam became the focus for resistance to Shah’s regime
- the 1979 revolution brought the creation of the Islamic Republic, in which clerics held state power + imposed Islamic law
22
outline Haynes’ view of the example of Iran as an example of cultural defence
- however, Haynes argues that the Iranian revolution was untypical of the Middle East, as it was led by religious leaders
- e.g. in countries like Saudi Arabia, R leaders are closely tied to the elite, who are tied to the West’s imperialism
- thus, R local leaders are typically opposed by R fundamentalists
22
outline God and globalisation in India
- globalisation has enabled rapid economic growth + has seen India become a more important figure in global politics
- G has also brought new found prosperity to some groups - e.g. India’s MC
22
what is the percent of the global population who are Hindu
- 85% of the worlds population is Hindu
22
outline Hinduism and consumerism
- globalisation has created a huge + prosperous, scientifically educated, urban MC in India working in science/ tech tied into the global economy
- these are the people who secularisation theory predicts will be the first to abandon R in favour of atheism
23
outline Nanda’s view of Hinduism and consumerism
- Hinduism dominates public Indian life + led people to believe that there are certain products, e.g. food blessed by gurus, which boost their religiosity
- the rise of R growth reflects the growth in religious tourism - e.g. visits to temples, shrines
- another feature of this MC religiosity is that they are encouraged to 'balance' their wealth by paying for extravagant religious rituals + other people to be R
23
outline the findings of a 2007 survey in relation to Hinduism and consumerism
- the survey found that Indians are becoming more religious
- only 5% said their religiosity had declined in the last 5yrs, while 30% said they had become more religious
- also found that urban educated Indians are more R than their rural + illiterate counterparts
23
outline Nanda’s explanation of the rise of religion in India
- Nanda rejects poverty + existential insecurity as an explanation, because they aren't poor
- she also rejects the idea that their religiosity is a defensive reaction to modernisation + Westernisation - Indian MC are optimistic about opportunities brought by globalisation
- Nanda argues their increasing religiosity is the result of their ambivalence (uncertainty) from their newfound wealth
23
outline Nanda’s view of the ambivalence of Hindus
- Nanda: the ambivalence from the rising Indian, educated MC stems from a tension between the trad Hindu belief in renunciation of materialism + worldly desires, and the new middle class
- this is resolved by the modern holy men + tele-gurus who preach the message that desire isn't bad, but is a manifestation of divinity that motivates people to do things
- Tele-gurus propose business-friendly versions of Hinduism to ease the guilt by teaching that MC consumerism can be 'spiritually balanced' by paying for extravagant R rituals, teaching that working hard is good - its okay to be wealthy as long as you're reinvesting it back into the R
- this legitimates the MC + allows them to adjust to globalised consumer capitalism + explains how Hinduism has remained popular (wealth + religiosity are interdependent)
23
outline Hindu ultra-nationalism
- Nanda also examines the role of Hinduism in legitimating a boastful version of Indian nationalism - e.g. the Pew Global Attitude Survey
- Nanda: India's success in the global market is increasingly attributed to the superiority of 'Hindu values' - a view constantly promoted by politicians + media, as well as the idea that Hinduism is the essence of Indian culture + identity
- in this Hindu ultra-nationalism, the worship of Hindu gods has become worship of the nation of India - Hinduism has become a 'civil religion'
23
the _ _ Attitude Survey: found that _% of Indians agreed that 'our people are not perfect, but our _ is superior to others' - higher than any other country
- the Pew Global Attitude Survey: found that 93% of Indians agreed that 'our people are not perfect, but our culture is superior to others' - higher than any other country
23
what is a negative affect of Hindu ultra-nationalism
- Nanda points out how this increasing Hindu ultra-nationalism creates a widening gulf between Hindus + non-Hindu minorities
23
(ultra-nationalism) outline Hinduism's penetration of public life
- Hinduism has also penetrated public life, so that India, a supposed secular state, is increasingly influenced by R
- e.g. 'Hindu sciences' such as astrology are being taught as academic subjects in universities + used to predict natural disasters
- e.g. the Ministry of Defence is sponsoring the development of weapons with 'magical powers' mentioned in ancient Hindu texts
23
outline capitalism in East Asia
- in recent decades, 'East Asian tiger economies' (e.g. South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan), have industrialised + become significant players in the global economy - China is now a major global industrial power
- the success of capitalism in East Asia has led sociologists to argue that R has played a role similar to one Calvinism played in the development of capitalism in the 16th-17thC Europe
23
outline Redding's view of capitalism in East Asia
- Redding: describes the spirit of capitalism among Chinese entrepreneurs in the tiger economics
- their Confucianist (Confucianism is a trad Chinese belief system) values encourage hard work, self-discipline, frugality + a commitment to education and self-improvement, like Calvinism
- the effect of this value system is similar to that of the Protestant Ethic, as it leads to economic productivity + accumulation of econ capital
23
outline Pentecostalism in Latin America
- Berger: Pentecostalism in Latin America acts as a 'functional equivalent' to Weber's Protestant Ethic, as it encourages the development of capitalism today in the same ways as Calvinism in 16-17thC Europe
- LA Pentecostalists embrace a work ethic + lifestyle similar to that of Calvinists - it demand asceticism, hard work and abstinence from alcohol, which encourages members to prosper + become upwardly mobile
- Berger agrees with Weber that an ethic like Protestantism is necessary to promote econ development of which can be led by an active minority, e.g. Pentecostalists
23
(Pentecostalism in Latin America) what does Berger disagree with Weber about
- Berger, however, underlines Weber's theory in that religious ideas are not enough alone to produce economic development - natural resources/ material conditions as well as normative conditions are needed
- e.g. while Pentecostalism has grown in Brazil, the region lacks resources + remains backward
- in contrast, the south is developing rapidly in aid of Pentecostalism + natural resources
23
outline global and local Pentecostalism
- in the last few centuries, Christianity has globalised out of Europe + into South America and Africa
- Lehmann: distinguishes between 2 phases in this explanation;
1) 1st phase: Christianity accompanied colonisation + was imposed on indigenous populations, by suppressing
2) 2nd phase: over the last century, Chr has spread as it gained a popular following from below
23
by _, there were _ Pentecostals in _
- by 2020, there were 195 million Pentecostals in South America
23
outline Lehmann's explanation for the success of global and local Pentecostalism
- Lehmann: the success of Pentecostalism as a global R is in part due to its ability to incorporate local cultures + beliefs - it preaches a similar global message but draws on local imagery + symbolism + beliefs
- e.g. Pentecostalists attack spirit possession cults as the work of the devil + minsters conduct exorcisms to rid people of evil spirits - this validates local traditional beliefs, whilst giving believers access to a greater power (of the Christian Holy Spirit)
- this allows P to create new local R forms, rathe than simply replacing existing local beliefs with an imported one - as 1st phase did
23
outline Christianity/ Pentecostalism in Africa
- in Africa, Pentecostalism forming local religions has led to the 'Africanisation' of Christianity rather than a total disappearance of indigenous Rs
- this adaptability to local customs + establishment of local identity shows Pentecostalism to have local diversity around the world
24
outline the role of Pentecostalism in developing countries
- Pentecostalism has also been successful in developing countries because its able to appeal to the poor who make up the majority of the population, + because it uses global media to spread its message
25
what are the positive + negative effects of globalisation
- positive: globalisation in India, capitalism in East Asia, Pentecostalism in Latin America
- negative: religious fundamentalism, cultural defence, clash of civilisations
26
name an AO2 example of rise of fundamentalism in USA
- the rise of the extreme right wing/ Republican party
- they base their ideas on Christian values, of retracting liberal ideas, conserving society
- e.g. Supreme Courts overturn of Roe vs Wade (abortion rights) - a Christian value
27
outline AO2 case of Lee Rigby
- Lee Rigby was a British soldier murdered in London in 2013
- the 2 men who killed Rigby, Adebolajo + Adebowale, were radicalized individuals who acted in retaliation for the deaths of Muslims caused by Western military, e.g. Afghanistan, Iraq
- their ideology was rooted in a distorted interpretation of Islam influenced by fundamentalist + extremist narratives, particularly those that violence as a legitimate response to perceived oppression
- this is an example of fundamentalists having an 'aggressive reaction'
28
_ is the national religion of India + accounts for _% of the population
- Hinduism is the national religion of India + accounts for 85% of the population
29
what are the 3 main features of the Postmodern view of religion
1) there is a decline in dominant traditional religious organisations
2) there is a growth of fundamentalism in all world religions
3) new religious movements and organisations have increased in number
30
outline a result of globalisation on Fundamentalist groups
- globalisation has allowed better communication between countries - allows orders to be sent from extremists to be completed in developing countries
- e.g. the ISIS attack in Paris in 2015; ISIS terrorists used automatic rifles, explosives in bars, cafes, stadiums - killed 130 people
31
outline an AO3 evaluation of fundamentalism as a cause of globalisation
- fundamentalism isnt always a reaction to globalisation/ external/ foreign forces causing conflict
- e.g. conflict in Middle East was due to the failures of local elites to fulfil their promises of better living standards which then fuels the drive for fundamentalist groups
