secularisation Flashcards
1
Q
define secularisation
A
- secularisation = the decline in the importance of religion
2
Q
outline secularisation in Britain
A
- in the last few decades, religiosity has been in decline, for example;
- a decline in the proportion of the population going/ belonging to a church
- an increase in the average age of churchgoers
- fewer baptisms + church weddings
- a decline in the numbers holding traditional Christian beliefs
- greater diversity of religions
3
Q
from the _ Census of Religious Worship, _ estimates that in that year, _% of adults attended church on Sundays
A
from the 1851 Census of Religious Worship, Crockett estimates that in that year, 40% of adults attended church on Sundays
4
Q
outline church attendance today
A
- secularisation trends identified by Wilson have continued
- by 2020, about 4% of the population attended church on Sundays
- similarly whilst church weddings + baptisms are more popular than church service, these numbers are in decline
5
Q
what does Wilson say about secularisation
A
- in 1966, Wilson agued that Western societies had been undergoing a long term process of secularisation
- e.g. how church attendance had fallen from 40% in mid-1800s to 10-15% in 1960
- church weddings, baptisms and Sunday school attendance have also all declined
6
Q
outline bogus baptisms
A
bogus baptisms:
- whilst infant baptisms have declined, baptisms for older children have increased in recent years
- this is most likely due to how the higher performing schools tend to be faith schools, and will only take baptised children
- baptism has thus become an entry ticket into good schools rather than a sign of religious commitment
7
Q
outline religious affiliations today
A
- religious affiliation = someone’s membership/ identification with a religion
- there is a decline in religious affiliations - the fall is sharpest in Anglicans (Church of England)
- the number of Catholics have increased slightly - due to East Europe immigration
- those from non-Christian religions (mainly Islam) also increased due to immigration + higher birth rates
- ‘other Christians’ include denomination such as Methodists, of whom have stayed the same since 1980s at 17% of the UK population
8
Q
outline religious beliefs today
A
- evidence about religious beliefs from 80yrs of surveys shows religious beliefs is declining along with the decline in Church attendance + membership
- e.g. surveys shows a significant decline in belief in a personal God, in the afterlife, the Bible etc
9
Q
outline religious institutions today
A
- the influence of religion as a social institution has also declined
- the influence of the church on public life has significantly decreased since the 19th century
- the state has taken over many of the functions previously performed by the church - R has increasingly become confined to the family + individual
- e.g. until the mid 19th century, the churches provided education, of which is now mainly provided by the state - there are faith schools, BUT are state funded + must conform to state regulations
10
Q
outline the clergy’s role in secularisation
A
- the number of clergy are a measure of the institutional weakness of the churches
- during the 20th century, the numbers of clergy fell from 45,000 to 34,000
- the clergy are also an ageing workforce - in 2020 the avg age of Anglican priests was 52
- the lack of clergy in local communities means the day to day influence of the churches is reduced
11
Q
what is Bruce’s prediction
A
- Bruce predicts that if current trends of secularisation continue, the Methodist Church will fold by 2030, which by then the Church of England will be merely a small voluntary organisation with a large amount of heritage property
12
Q
outline Weber’s theory of rationalisation
A
- rationalisation refers to the process of which rational ways of thinking replace religious ones
- Western society has undergone rationalisation in the past few centuries
- Weber argues the Protestant Reformation began by Martin Luther in the 1500s began rationalisation - it undermined the religious worldview + replaced it with the rational scientific outlook of modern society
- the medieval Catholic worldview dominating Europe in the Middle Ages spoke of magic, angels, devils, supernatural, spells, prayers, wearing of charms etc
13
Q
what is a common explanation of secularisation
A
- modernisation; the idea that the decline of tradition has been replaced with rational and scientific ways of thinking that undermine religion
14
Q
outline Weber’s idea of disenchantment
A
- with the new worldview brought by the Protestant Reformation, Protestantism saw God as transcendent - as external and non-intervening in this world
- this meant events were no longer explainable as the work of unpredictable supernatural beings, but as predictable workings of natural force (rationality)
- Weber argues that this Protestant Reformation began disenchantment/ secularisation
- this enables science to thrive + provide the basis for technological advancements that give humans more power to control nature - undermines religious worldview
15
Q
outline Bruce’s idea of a technological worldview
A
- like Weber, Bruce argues that the growth of a technological worldview has replaced religious/ supernatural explanations of why things happen
- e.g. when a plane crashes with fatalities, it is no longer due to the work of evil spirits, but has a scientific/ technological explanation for it
- this view undermines religious explanations which only survive in areas with little technology - e.g. in LICs
- Bruce concludes that although scientific explanations don’t challenge R explanations directly, they greatly reduce their legitimacy + encourages secularisation
16
Q
outline Parson’s theory of structural differentiation
A
- Parsons defines structural differentiation as a process of specialisation that occurs with the development of industrial society
- specialised institutions form to carry out functions that were previously performed by a single institution - Parsons sees this as happening to R
- there is disengagement and privatisation
- even where R continues to perform functions - e.g. education, welfare - it must conform to the states requirements
- e.g. teachers in faith schools must hold qualifications that are recognised by the state
16
Q
outline Parson’s concept of disengagement in structural differentiation
A
disengagement:
- Parsons argues structural differentiation leads to the disengagement of religion
- Religion’s functions are transferred to other institutions, like the state
- R becomes disconnected from wider society - e.g. the church loses the influence it once had on education, welfare + the law
17
Q
outline Parson’s concept of privatisation in structural differentiation
A
- Bruce agrees with Parsons that religion has become separated from wider society + has lost many of its former functions
- it has become privatised - confined to the private sphere of the home + family
- R beliefs are largely a matter of personal choice + religious beliefs are largely a matter of personal choice + R institutions have lost their influence on wider society
- thus, traditional rituals + symbols have lost meaning
18
Q
what are the 3 types of social and cultural diversity
A
1) decline of community
2) industrialisation
3) diversity of occupations, cultures and lifestyles which undermine R
19
Q
outline the decline of community (social + cultural diversity)
A
- the move from pre-industrial to industrial society brings about the decline of community which contributes to the decline in religion
- Wilson: in pre industrial communities, there were shared values expressed through collective religious rituals which integrated individuals + regulated behaviour
- when R lost its basis in stable local communities, it lost its vitality + hold over individuals
20
Q
outline industrialisation (social + cultural diversity)
A
- Bruce sees industrialisation as undermining the consensus of religious beliefs that hold small communities together
- there are now large loose-knit urban communities with diverse values + beliefs
- social and geographical mobility not only breaks up communities, but creates diversity by bringing people of different backgrounds together
21
Q
outline diversity of occupations, cultures and lifestyles which undermine R (social + cultural diversity)
A
- even where people continue to be religious, they cant avoid the diverse + secular beliefs around them
- Bruce: the plausibility (believability) of R beliefs is undermined by alternatives
- it is also undermined by individualism as the plausibility of R depends on the existence of a practising community/ believers
- in the absence of a practising religious community, both R beliefs + practice declines
22
Q
outline AO3 criticisms of the belief that religion is in decline/ secularising
A
- Aldridge points out that a religious community doesn’t have to be in 1 area;
- R can be a source of identify on a worldwide scale - e.g. for Jewish, Hindu + Muslims
- some R communities are imagined communities that interact through the global media - e.g. Televangelism
- Pentecostal + other R groups often thrive in ‘impersonal’ urban areas
23
Q
what is Pentecostal religion
A
- Pentecostalism is a form of Christianity that emphasises the work of the Holy Spirit + the direct experience of the presence of God by the believer
24
Q
what does Berger say another cause of secularisation is
A
- Berger argues another cause of secularisation is religious diversity where there are many religious organisations + interpretations of faith - not just one
- Berger talks about the sacred canopy + the plausibility structure
25
Q
outline Berger’s idea of the sacred canopy (religious diversity)
A
- in the Middle Ages, everyone lived under a ‘sacred canopy’/ shared set of beliefs due to the control held by the European Catholic Church + lack of competition or challenge to the Church’s version of the truth
- this changed with the Protestant Reformation, when Protestant sects broke away from the Catholic church in the 16th century
- from then on, R organisations have continued to multiply, each with different versions of the truth - now no church can claim an unchallenged monopoly of the truth
- society is thus no longer unified under the ‘scared canopy’ - R diversity has created a ‘plurality of life worlds’, where people’s perceptions of the world vary + there are diff interpretations of the truth
26
Q
outline Berger’s idea of the plausibility structure (religious diversity)
A
- Berger argues that diversity undermines R’s ‘plausibility structure’ (the reasons why people believe it) which creates a crisis of credibility for R
- when there are alternative versions of R, people question them, which erodes the certainties of traditional R
- R beliefs become relative rather than absolute - the truth becomes a personal point of view, which creates the possibility of opting out of R altogether
27
Q
outline AO3 criticisms of Berger
A
- Berger has since changed his views + now argues that diversity and choice actually stimulate interest and participation in R, rather than secularising it - e.g. growth of Televangelism in Latin America
- Beckford: agrees with the idea that religious diversity will lead to some question/ abandoning of R beliefs - but this isn’t inevitable - opposing views can strengthen a R group’s commitment to their belief rather than undermining them
27
Q
outline Bruce’s idea of cultural defence and transition
A
- Bruce: identifies 2 counter-trends that go against the secularisation theory
- both are associated with higher levels of religious participation; cultural defence, and cultural transition
27
Q
outline Bruce’s idea of cultural defence + 2 examples
A
- cultural defence is where R provides a focal point for the defence of national, ethnic, local or group identity in a struggle against an external force such as hostile foreign powers
- e.g. the popularity of Catholicism in Poland before the fall of communism as well as the resurgence of Islam before the revolution in Iran in 1979
28
Q
outline Bruce’s idea of cultural transition + example
A
- cultural transition is where R provides support and a sense of community for ethnic groups, such as migrants to a different country + culture
- R has performed similar functions for the Irish, African Caribbean, Muslim and other migrants to the UK
- but Bruce argues that R survives in these situations only because its a focus for group identity - thus these examples don’t disprove secularisation, but shows that R is most likely to survive when it performs functions other than relating individuals to the supernatural
29
Q
outline Wilson’s view of secularisation in America
A
- in 1962, Wilson found that 45% of Americans attended church on Sundays, but he argues that church going in US was an expression of the ‘American way of life’ than of R belief
- Wilson claimed that America was as secular society, as R had become superficial - even if people still attended church
30
Q
outline Bruce’s view of secularisation in America
A
- Bruce agrees with Wilson that US is becoming increasingly secular
- B uses 3 sources of evidence to support this claim;
1) declining church attendance
2) ‘secularisation from within’
3) a trend towards R diversity and relativism
31
Q
outline declining church attendance in secularising America
A
- church attendance in US has been stable at about 40% of the population since 1940
- however, Hadaway: in his research, found that this figure didn’t match his own research - church attendance stats have been exaggerated
- this tendency to exaggerate church going is a recent development - since the 1970s, the ‘attendance gap’ of findings of opinion polls has widened
- Bruce: concludes that the stable self-reported rate of 40% of church attendees masks a decline in actual attendance
32
Q
a study of attendance at Catholic Mass in America found that in _, opinion polls exaggerated attendance by _%, but by _, exaggeration had doubled to _%
A
- a study of attendance at Catholic Mass in America found that in 1972, opinion polls exaggerated attendance by 47%, but by 1996, exaggeration had doubled to 101%
32
Q
outline Hadaway’s study of church attendence
A
- Hadaway found the figure of 40% of Americans attending church didn’t match the churches’ own stats
- if almost 1/2 of the US population was attending ch. it would be full, but they’re not
- Hadaway studied church attendance in Ohio in 1993, in which they carried out head counts at services as well as interviews about church attendance
- they found that attendance claimed by interviewees was 83% higher than their estimates of church attendance
33
Q
outline secularisation from within in secularising America
A
- Bruce: American R has adjusted to the modern world by secularising from within
- the emphasis on trad Christian beliefs + glorifying God has declined + R in America has become ‘psychologised’/ turned into a form of therapy
- this change has enabled it to fit into a secular society - American R has remained popular by becoming less religious
- the purpose of R has changed from seeking salvation in heaven to seeking personal improvement - peoples attitudes + lifestyle have led to a decline in commitment in trad beliefs
34
Q
outline religious diversity in secularising America
A
- the growth of religious diversity has also contributed to secularisation from within - churchgoers are becoming less dogmatic (strongly opinionated) in their views
- Bruce: identifies a trend towards ‘practical relativism’ among American Christians, involving acceptance of the view others are entitled to their own beliefs - e.g. Lynd + Lynd’s study
- the counter to practical relativism is the ‘erosion of absolutism’ - how we now live in a society where people hold their own different views, which undermines our assumption that our own views are absolutely true
34
Q
_ and _ found that in _, _% of teen churchgoers agreed with the statement that ‘Christianity is the one true religion and all people should be converted to it’, but by _, only _% agreed
A
- Lynd and Lynd found that in 1924, 94% of teen churchgoers agreed with the statement that ‘Christianity is the one true religion and all people should be converted to it’, but by 1977, only 41% agreed
35
Q
outline AO3 criticisms of the secularisation theory
A
- R is not declining but simply changing in its form
- secularisation theory is one-sided; it focuses on decline + ignores religious revivals + growth of new religions
- evidence of church attendance ignores those who believe but don’t attend church
- R may be declining in Europe, but not globally - secularisation isn’t global
