secularisation Flashcards
define secularisation
- secularisation = the decline in the importance of religion
outline secularisation in Britain
- in the last few decades, religiosity has been in decline, for example;
- a decline in the proportion of the population going/ belonging to a church
- an increase in the average age of churchgoers
- fewer baptisms + church weddings
- a decline in the numbers holding traditional Christian beliefs
- greater diversity of religions
from the _ Census of Religious Worship, _ estimates that in that year, _% of adults attended church on Sundays
from the 1851 Census of Religious Worship, Crockett estimates that in that year, 40% of adults attended church on Sundays
outline church attendance today
- secularisation trends identified by Wilson have continued
- by 2020, about 4% of the population attended church on Sundays
- similarly whilst church weddings + baptisms are more popular than church service, these numbers are in decline
what does Wilson say about secularisation
- in 1966, Wilson agued that Western societies had been undergoing a long term process of secularisation
- e.g. how church attendance had fallen from 40% in mid-1800s to 10-15% in 1960
- church weddings, baptisms and Sunday school attendance have also all declined
- W identifies 3 aspects of secularisation: R beliefs, practices and institutions
outline bogus baptisms
bogus baptisms:
- whilst infant baptisms have declined, baptisms for older children have increased in recent years
- this is most likely due to how the higher performing schools tend to be faith schools, and will only take baptised children
- baptism has thus become an entry ticket into good schools rather than a sign of religious commitment
outline religious affiliations today
- religious affiliation = someone’s membership/ identification with a religion
- there is a decline in R affiliations - the fall is sharpest in Anglicans (Church of England)
- the number of Catholics have increased slightly - due to East Europe immigration
- those from non-Christian Rs (esp Islam) also increased due to immigration + higher birth rates
- ‘other Christians’ include denomination such as Methodists, of whom have stayed the same since 1980s at 17% of the UK population
outline religious beliefs today
- evidence about religious beliefs from 80yrs of surveys shows religious beliefs is declining along with the decline in Church attendance + membership
- e.g. surveys shows a significant decline in belief in a personal God, in the afterlife, the Bible etc
outline religious institutions today
- the influence of religion as a social institution has also declined
- influence of the church on public life has significantly decreased since the 19th century
- state has taken over many of the functions previously performed by the church - R has increasingly become confined to the family + individual
- e.g. until the mid 19th century, the churches provided education, of which is now mainly provided by the state - there are faith schools, BUT are state funded + must conform to state regulations
outline the clergy’s role in secularisation
- the number of clergy are a measure of the institutional weakness of the churches
- during the 20th century, the numbers of clergy fell from 45,000 to 34,000
- the clergy are also an ageing workforce - in 2020 the avg age of Anglican priests was 52
- the lack of clergy in local communities means the day to day influence of the churches is reduced
what is Bruce’s prediction
- Bruce predicts that if current trends of secularisation continue, the Methodist Church will fold by 2030, which by then the Church of England will be merely a small voluntary organisation with a large amount of heritage property
outline Weber’s theory of rationalisation
- rationalisation = the process of which rational ways of thinking replace religious ones
- Western society rationalised + replaced R/ spiritual/ magical elements of life
- Weber: Protestant Reformation began by Martin Luther in the 1500s which began rationalisation - it undermined R + replaced it with rational scientific outlook
- the medieval Catholic worldview dominating Europe in the Middle Ages spoke of magic, angels, devils, supernatural, spells, prayers, wearing of charms etc
what is a common explanation of secularisation
- modernisation; the idea that the decline of tradition has been replaced with rational and scientific ways of thinking that undermine religion
outline Weber’s idea of disenchantment
- with the new worldview brought by the Protestant Reformation, Protestantism saw God as transcendent - as external/ non-intervening in this world
- this meant events weren’t explainable by unpredictable supernatural beings, but through rationality
- Weber: this Protestant Reformation began disenchantment/ secularisation which enabled science to thrive + provide the basis for tech advancements that give humans more power to control nature - undermines R worldview
outline Bruce’s idea of a technological worldview
- like Weber, Bruce argues that the growth of a technology has replaced R explanations of events
- e.g. when there is a fatal plane crash, it is no longer due to the work of evil spirits, but has a scientific/ technological explanation
- this view undermines R explanations which only survive in areas with little technology - e.g. in LICs
- Bruce: although scientific explanations don’t challenge R explanations directly, they greatly reduce their legitimacy + encourage secularisation
outline Parson’s theory of structural differentiation
- Parsons: defines structural differentiation as a process of specialisation that occurs with the development of industrial society
- specialised institutions form to carry out functions that were previously performed by a single institution - P sees this as happening to R
- there is disengagement + privatisation - even where R continues to perform functions - e.g. education, welfare - it must conform to the state’s requirements
- e.g. teachers in faith schools must hold qualifications that are recognised by the state
outline Parson’s concept of disengagement in structural differentiation
disengagement:
- Parsons argues structural differentiation leads to the disengagement of religion
- Religion’s functions are transferred to other institutions, like the state
- R becomes disconnected from wider society - e.g. the church loses the influence it once had on education, welfare + the law
outline Parson’s concept of privatisation in structural differentiation
- Bruce agrees with Parsons that religion has become separated from wider society + has lost many of its former functions
- it has become privatised - confined to the private sphere of the home + family
- R beliefs are largely a matter of personal choice + religious beliefs are largely a matter of personal choice + R institutions have lost their influence on wider society
- thus, traditional rituals + symbols have lost meaning
what are the 3 types of social and cultural diversity
1) decline of community
2) industrialisation
3) diversity of occupations, cultures and lifestyles which undermine R
outline the decline of community (social + cultural diversity)
- the move from pre-industrial to industrial society brings about the decline of community which contributes to the decline in religion
- Wilson: in pre industrial communities, collective religious rituals integrated individuals + regulated behaviour + reinforced shared values
- when R lost its basis in stable local communities, it lost its vitality + hold over individuals
outline industrialisation (social + cultural diversity)
- Bruce: industrialisation undermines the consensus of R beliefs that hold small communities together
- there are now large loose-knit urban communities with diverse values + beliefs
- social + geographical mobility not only breaks up communities, but creates diversity by bringing people of different backgrounds together
outline diversity of occupations, cultures and lifestyles which undermine R (social + cultural diversity)
- even where people continue to be religious, they cant avoid the diverse + secular beliefs around them
- Bruce: the plausibility (believability) of R beliefs is undermined by alternatives
- it is also undermined by individualism as the plausibility of R depends on the existence of a practising community/ believers
- in the absence of a practising religious community, both R beliefs + practice declines
outline AO3 criticisms of the belief that religion is in decline/ secularising
- Aldridge: a R community doesn’t have to be in 1 area;
- R can be a source of identity on a global scale - e.g. for Jewish, Hindu + Muslims
- some R communities are imagined communities that interact through the global media - e.g. Televangelism
- Pentecostal + other R groups often thrive in ‘impersonal’ urban areas
what is Pentecostal religion
- Pentecostalism is a form of Christianity that emphasises the work of the Holy Spirit + the direct experience of the presence of God by the believer
what does Berger say another cause of secularisation is
- Berger: another cause of secularisation is R diversity where there are many R organisations + interpretations of faith - not just one
- Berger talks about the sacred canopy + the plausibility structure
outline Berger’s idea of the sacred canopy (religious diversity)
- in the Middle Ages, everyone lived under a ‘sacred canopy’/ shared set of beliefs due to the control held by the European Catholic Church + lack of competition or challenge to the Church’s version of the truth
- this changed with the Protestant Reformation, when Protestant sects broke away from the Catholic church in the 16th century
- from then on, R organisations have continued to multiply, each with different versions of the truth - now no church can claim an unchallenged monopoly of the truth
- society is thus no longer unified under the ‘scared canopy’ - R diversity has created a ‘plurality of life worlds’, where people’s perceptions of the world vary + there are diff interpretations of the truth
outline Berger’s idea of the plausibility structure (religious diversity)
- Berger argues that diversity undermines R’s ‘plausibility structure’ (the reasons why people believe it) which creates a crisis of credibility for R
- when there are alternative versions of R, people question them, which erodes the certainties of traditional R
- R beliefs become relative rather than absolute - the truth becomes a personal point of view, which creates the possibility of opting out of R altogether
outline AO3 criticisms of Berger
- Berger has since changed his views + now argues that diversity and choice actually stimulate interest and participation in R, rather than secularising it - e.g. growth of Televangelism in Latin America
- Beckford: agrees with the idea that religious diversity will lead to some question/ abandoning of R beliefs - but this isn’t inevitable - opposing views can strengthen a R group’s commitment to their belief rather than undermining them
outline Bruce’s idea of cultural defence and transition
- Bruce: identifies 2 counter-trends that go against the secularisation theory
- both are associated with higher levels of religious participation; cultural defence, and cultural transition
outline Bruce’s idea of cultural defence + 2 examples
- cultural defence: where R provides a focal point for the defence of national, ethnic, local or group identity in a struggle against an external force such as hostile foreign powers
- e.g. the popularity of Catholicism in Poland before the fall of communism as well as the resurgence of Islam before the revolution in Iran in 1979
outline Bruce’s idea of cultural transition + example
- cultural transition: where R provides support + a sense of community for ethnic groups, e.g. migrants to a different country + culture
- R has performed similar functions for the Irish, African Caribbean, Muslim and other migrants to the UK
- but Bruce argues that R survives in these situations only because its a focus for group identity - thus these examples don’t disprove secularisation, but shows that R is most likely to survive when it performs functions other than relating individuals to the supernatural
outline Wilson’s view of secularisation in America
- in 1962, Wilson found that 45% of Americans attended church on Sundays, but he argues that church going in US was an expression of the ‘American way of life’ than of R belief
- Wilson claimed that America was as secular society, as R had become superficial - even if people still attended church
outline Bruce’s view of secularisation in America
- Bruce agrees with Wilson that US is becoming increasingly secular
- B uses 3 sources of evidence to support this claim;
1) declining church attendance
2) ‘secularisation from within’
3) a trend towards R diversity and relativism
outline declining church attendance in secularising America
- church attendance in US has been stable at about 40% of the population since 1940
- however, Hadaway: found that this figure didn’t match his own research - church attendance stats have been exaggerated
- this tendency to exaggerate church going is a recent development - since the 1970s, the ‘attendance gap’ of findings of opinion polls has widened
- Bruce: concludes that the stable self-reported rate of 40% of church attendees masks a decline in actual attendance
a study of attendance at Catholic Mass in America found that in _, opinion polls exaggerated attendance by _%, but by _, exaggeration had doubled to _%
- a study of attendance at Catholic Mass in America found that in 1972, opinion polls exaggerated attendance by 47%, but by 1996, exaggeration had doubled to 101%
outline Hadaway’s study of church attendence
- Hadaway found the figure of 40% of Americans attending church didn’t match the churches’ own stats
- if almost 1/2 of the US population was attending ch. it would be full, but they’re not
- Hadaway studied church attendance in Ohio in 1993, in which they carried out head counts at services as well as interviews about church attendance
- they found that attendance claimed by interviewees was 83% higher than their estimates of church attendance
outline secularisation from within in secularising America
- Bruce: American R has adjusted to the modern world by secularising from within
- the emphasis on trad Christian beliefs + glorifying God has declined + R in America has become ‘psychologised’/ turned into a form of therapy
- this change has enabled it to fit into a secular society - American R has remained popular by becoming less religious
- the purpose of R has changed from seeking salvation in heaven to seeking personal improvement - peoples attitudes + lifestyle have led to a decline in commitment in trad beliefs
outline religious diversity in secularising America
- the growth of religious diversity has also contributed to secularisation from within - churchgoers are becoming less dogmatic (strongly opinionated) in their views
- Bruce: identifies a trend towards ‘practical relativism’ among American Christians, involving acceptance of the view others are entitled to their own beliefs - e.g. Lynd + Lynd’s study
- the counter to practical relativism is the ‘erosion of absolutism’ - how we now live in a society where people hold their own different views, which undermines our assumption that our own views are absolutely true
_ and _ found that in _, _% of teen churchgoers agreed with the statement that ‘Christianity is the one true religion and all people should be converted to it’, but by _, only _% agreed
- Lynd and Lynd found that in 1924, 94% of teen churchgoers agreed with the statement that ‘Christianity is the one true religion and all people should be converted to it’, but by 1977, only 41% agreed
outline AO3 criticisms of the secularisation theory
- R is not declining but simply changing in its form
- secularisation theory is one-sided; it focuses on decline + ignores religious revivals + growth of new religions
- evidence of church attendance ignores those who believe but don’t attend church
- R may be declining in Europe, but not globally - secularisation isn’t global
in _, for the first time in British history, less than _ of the population are Christian
- in 2021, for the first time in British history, less than 1/2 of the population are Christian
what is the substantive definition of secularisation
- the exclusivist model of religion = narrow definition for what ‘constitutes’ as R
what is the social constructionist definition of secularisation
- inclusivist definition = broader definition, includes political movements + value systems, e.g. humanism, neither of which would be seen as R by more exclusive approaches
what are the 2 main approaches for studying secularisation
1) institutional approach: focuses on church + church attendance - it assumes that the move away from R participation is secularisation
2) societal approach: studies the role + impact of R on society + the individual
in _, _% of weddings were in churches, compared to _% in _
- in 2018, 20% of weddings were in churches, compared to 60% in 1971
what is the most religious area of the UK
- inner London is the most religious area of the country, mainly due to its large Muslim + migrant communities
between -, the proportion of members of non-Christian religions _ - principally _ + _
- between 1983-2015, the proportion of members of non-Christian religions quadrupled - principally Muslims + Hindus
what pattern does Bullivant identify
- Bullivant: identifies a marked growth in ‘nonverts’ - a person who was brought up to practice a religion, but now identifies as having no religion
what is the pattern of religion in the UK
- Britain has become less religious and less white
- its the first time a minority of the population has followed the country’s official R
- people aren’t necessarily less religious/ secular - they are less into organised religion but believe in a higher power
