Theories of Religion Flashcards
name the 3 ways religion can be defined
- substantive
- functional
- social constructionist
outline evaluations of the substantive definitions of religion
- defining R in this way leaves no room for beliefs and practices that perform similar functions to R but don’t involve God
- the substantive definition also has a western bias of what R should be
outline the functional definitions of religion
- functional definitions define R in terms of social or psychological functions it performs for individuals/ society
- e.g. Durkheim: defines R in terms of its contribution to social integration
- the functional definition is inclusive to a wide range of beliefs + practices
outline the substantive definitions of religion
- these focus on the content/ substance of religious belief
- e.g. Weber defines religion as belief in superior power that is above nature + cant be scientifically explained
- sub. definitions draw a clear line between religious + non-religious beliefs, (religious beliefs include belief in God/ supernatural)
outline evaluations of the functional definitions of religion
- just because an institution helps integrate individuals, this doesn’t make it a R.
- e.g. collective chanting at a football game might give an individual a sense of integration, but that doesn’t make it a R
outline the constructionist definitions of religion
- social constructionists take an interpretivist approach that focuses on how members of society define R. they think its not possible to produce a single universal definition of R
- Ints research about how the definitions of R can be contested – e.g. Aldridge investigates Scientology and how several Govts have banned it
- constructionists don’t assume that R always involves a belief in God
(func) outline the functionalist view of R
- functionalists view society as a system of interrelated parts/ social institutions – like R – that contributes to maintaining social order
(func) outline Durkheim’s concept of totemism in R
- D believed that the essence of all R is founded through studying its simplest form – clan society. D studied Arunta, an Aboriginal tribe
- the clan consists of rituals worshipping a sacred totem which is the clan’s emblem (a design symbolising the clan’s origins/ identity)
- D argues that the clan’s worship of the totem is their worship of society
(func) name the 4 aspects Durkheim’s outlines on R
- the scared and the profane
- totemism
- the collective conscience
- cognitive functions of religion
(func) outline Durkheim’s concept of the scared and the profane in R
- a key feature of R is the fundamental difference between the sacred + the profane
- the sacred: things set apart that inspire feelings of awe/ fear/ wonder. These things evoke powerful feelings because they are symbols representing something of a great power – which can only be society. Thus, people are worshipping society through these scared symbols which unites believers
- the profane: things that have no significance; ordinary + mundane things
(func) outline Durkheim’s concept of cognitive functions of R
- D sees R as a source of social solidarity + our intellectual capacities for sharing thoughts through shared categories that R provides
- R is the origin of the concepts + categories we need for reasoning, understanding the world + communication
(func) outline Durkheim’s concept of the collective conscience in R
- sacred symbols represent society’s collective conscience (shared norms)
- regular shared religious rituals reinforce the CC + maintain social integration
(func) outline criticisms of Durkheim’s view of R
- the evidence of totemism is unsound – Worsley: notes that there is no sharp division between the sacred + the profane. e.g. different clans can use the same totem
- D’s theory is harder to apply to large scale societies with multiple religions as it doesn’t explain conflict between religions
- Postmodernists: argue that D’s ideas cant be applied to contemporary society as increasing diversity has fragmented the CC so there’s no shared value system for R to reinforce
(func) outline Malinowski’s psychological functions of religion
- Malinowski agrees with Durkheim that R promotes solidarity, but M thinks it does this by performing psychological functions, like helping people cope with emotional stress
(func) what are the 2 types of situations that Malinowski thinks R performs a psychological role
1) where the outcome is important but is uncontrollable: Ms studied Tobriand islanders
- lagoon fishing: is safe and uses predictable + successful methods of poisoning – uses no ritual
- ocean fishing: is dangerous + uncertain, always accompanied by ‘canoe magic’ (rituals to ensure success + safety). This gives people a sense of control + confidence + reinforces group solidarity
2) at times of life crisis:
- R helps to minimise the disruption in events such as birth, marriage, esp death
- e.g. the notion of immortality gives comfort to the grieving by denying the fact of death. M argues death is the main reason for R belief
(func) how does Parsons say that R creates + legitimates society’s central values
- R does this by sacralising (giving value to) society’s central values
- this serves to promote a value consensus and thus social stability
- e.g. in USA Protestantism sacralised core American values of meritocracy, individualism etc
(func) outline Parson’s concept of values and meaning
- like Malinowski, Parsons sees R as helping individuals to cope with unforeseen events + uncontrollable outcomes
- P identifies 2 other functions of R:
1) creating + legitimising society’s central values
2) being the primary source of meaning
(func) how does Parsons say R is the primary source of meaning
- it answers ‘ultimate’ questions about society, like why the good suffer
- R provides the answers to these and so enables people to adjust to adverse events or circumstances + maintains stability
(func) what does Bellah say about civil religion
- Bellah: CR integrates society in a way that churches/ denominations (e.g. Catholicism) cannot
- CR claims the loyalty of all Americans as it involves loyalty to the nation state + a belief in God and it unites all Americans
- it does this through traditions and rituals like the national anthem + the phrase ‘one nation under God’
(func) outline the concept of civil religion
- a civil religion is a belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society, for example in the USA, CR is a faith in Americanism
(func) what is an evaluation of civil religion
- can CR actually be considered a R if its not based on a belief in the supernatural
(func) outline functional alternatives to R
- func alternatives are non-religious beliefs + practices that are equivalent to that of organised R
- e.g. reinforcing shared values / maintaining social cohesion
- for example, Nazi Germany had secular / non-R political beliefs through which they united society
(func) outline AO3 evaluations of Functionalist views of R
- Func ignores the negative aspects that R performs, such as a source of oppression for the poor or women
- it ignores R as a source of divisions + conflict, esp in modern societies with multiple religions - they dont always promote integration
(Marx) outline the Marxist view of religion
- in the context of Marx’s general view of society (class divisions, capitalism etc), R is a feature of only class divided societies and maintains inequalities
(Marx) outline R as an ideology
- Marx believes that R operates as an ideological tool used by the RC to legitimise the suffering of the poor as inevitable and God-given
- R misleads the poor into accepting their low status as its virtuous + that their rewards will come in the afterlife
(Marx) define ideology
- ideology = a belief system that distorts peoples perception of reality in ways that serve the interests of the RC
(Marx) what does Lenin say about R
- Lenin describes R as ‘spiritual gin’ - an intoxicant doled out to the masses by the RC to confuse + keep them in their place
- the RC uses R to manipulate the masses and keep them from revolting by creating a ‘mystical fog’ that obscures reality
(Marx) what is a Christian quote that justifies the class divide
- “it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than it is for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven”
(Marx) outline R and alienation
- R is the product of alienation
- alienation involves becoming separate from something that one has created
- under Cap, workers are alienated as they have no control over the production process
(Marx) outline R as an opiate
- Marx says how R acts as an opiate to dull/ mask the pain of exploitation instead of treating the cause
- R’s promise of the afterlife distracts attention from the true source of suffering - capitalism
(Marx) outline AO3 evaluations of Marxist views of R
- Marx ignores the positive functions of R. such as psychological adjustment to misfortune
- some Marxists such as Althusser rejects the concept of alienation as its unscientific/ based on a romantic idea
- R does not necessarily function effectively as an ideology to control the population - it has a limited impact
(Fem) outline the Feminist view of R
- R is regarded as a patriarchal institution that reflects + perpetuates patriarchal inequality through legitimising female subordination
(Fem) outline the 4 aspects that display evidence of patriarchy in R
- religious organizations
- places of worship
- sacred texts
- religious laws and customs
(Fem) outline religious organisations as evidence of patriarchy within R
- are male dominated even though women often participate more than men
- e.g. Orthodox Judaism + Catholicism forbid women to become priests
(Fem) outline places of worship as evidence of patriarchy within R
- often segregate the sexes + marginalize W
- women’s participation is restricted
- e.g. in Islam, menstruating W aren’t allowed to touch the Qur’an
(Fem) outline sacred texts as evidence of patriarchy within R
- largely feature male gods/ prophets
- are mostly written + interpreted by men
- stories reflect anti-female stereotypes
- e.g. Eve in the Bible causes humanity’s fall rom grace
(Fem) outline religious laws and customs as evidence of patriarchy within R
- gives W fewer rights than M - e.g. access to divorce, dress codes
- religious influence on cultural norms also leads to unequal treatment - e.g. genital mutilation, punishments for sexual transgressions
- R legitimizes W’s traditional, reproductive + domestic role, e.g. the Catholic Church bans abortion + contraceptives
(Fem) outline piety movements as an example of religious form of Feminism
- Piety movements: conservative movements that support trad teachings about W’s role, modest dress, prayer + bible study
- Rinaldo argues that even within conservative religions, W are still able to further their own interests
- but its usually white MC W who have other resources (education, income) to pursue their goals in R
(Fem) outline Liberal Protestant organisations as an example of religious form of Feminism
- groups like Quakers and Unitarians are often committed to gender equality
- e.g. 1/3 of unitarian ministers are female
(Fem) outline Feminist criticisms that R does not subordinate W
- Armstrong: early R places W at the center - e.g. earth mother goddesses. it was the rise of monotheistic R that saw the establishment of all powerful male gods
- Saadawi: R is not the direct cause of female subordination - its the result of patriarchal societies coming into existence
- however, once in power, pat societies began to influence R - e.g. men began to interpret sacred texts to favour patriarchy
(Fem) outline Woodhead’s religious forms of feminism
- Woodhead: whilst accepting that trad forms of R is patriarchal, she emphasizes that not all forms of R are - there are ‘religious forms of feminism’ - W are able to gain freedom + respect through R
- e.g. the hijab/ veil worn by Muslim W is seen as a tool of oppression by western Feminists, but the wearer sees it as liberating
