Theories of Religion Flashcards
1
Q
name the 3 ways religion can be defined
A
- substantive
- functional
- social constructionist
2
Q
outline evaluations of the substantive definitions of religion
A
- defining R in this way leaves no room for beliefs and practices that perform similar functions to R but don’t involve God
- the substantive definition also has a western bias of what R should be
3
Q
outline the functional definitions of religion
A
- functional definition defines R in terms of social or psychological functions it performs for individuals/ society
- e.g. Durkheim: defines R in terms of its contribution to social integration
- the functional definition is inclusive to a wide range of beliefs + practices
4
Q
outline the substantive definitions of religion
A
- these focus on the content/ substance of religious belief
- e.g. Weber defines religion as belief in superior power that is above nature + cant be scientifically explained
- sub. definitions draw a clear line between religious + non-religious beliefs, (religious beliefs include belief in God/ supernatural)
5
Q
outline evaluations of the functional definitions of religion
A
- just because an institution helps integrate individuals, this doesn’t make it a R.
- e.g. collective chanting at a football game might give an individual a sense of integration, but that doesn’t make it a R
6
Q
outline the constructionist definitions of religion
A
- social constructionists take an interpretivist approach that focuses on how members of society define R. they think its not possible to produce a single universal definition of R
- Ints research about how the definitions of R can be contested – e.g. Aldridge investigates Scientology and how several Govts have banned it
- constructionists don’t assume that R always involves a belief in God
7
Q
(func) outline the functionalist view of R
A
- functionalists view R as a part of a system maintains social order + maintaining harmony
8
Q
(func) outline Durkheim’s concept of totemism in R
A
- D believed that the essence of all R is founded through studying its simplest form – clan society. D studied Arunta, an Aboriginal tribe
- the clan consists of rituals worshipping a sacred totem which is the clan’s emblem (a design symbolising the clan’s origins/ identity)
- D argues that the clan’s worship of the totem is their worship of society
9
Q
(func) name the 4 aspects Durkheim’s outlines on R
A
- the scared and the profane
- totemism
- the collective conscience
- cognitive functions of religion
10
Q
(func) outline Durkheim’s concept of the scared and the profane in R
A
- a key feature of R is the fundamental difference between the sacred + the profane
- the sacred: things that inspire feelings of awe/ fear/ wonder + unite people into a single moral community - e.g. the bible
- the profane: things that have no significance; ordinary + mundane things
11
Q
(func) outline Durkheim’s concept of cognitive functions of R
A
- D: R is a source of intellectual + cognitive thinking
- R is the origin of the concepts + categories we need for reasoning, understanding the world + communication - e.g. sacred/profane, right/wrong, good/evil
12
Q
(func) outline Durkheim’s concept of the collective conscience in R
A
- sacred symbols represent society’s collective conscience (shared norms)
- shared religious rituals reinforce the CC + maintain social integration
13
Q
(func) outline criticisms of Durkheim’s view of R
A
- the evidence of totemism is unsound – Worsley: notes that there is no sharp division between the sacred + the profane. e.g. different clans can use the same totem
- D’s theory is harder to apply to large scale societies with multiple religions as it doesn’t explain conflict between religions
- Postmodernists: argue that D’s ideas cant be applied to contemporary society as increasing diversity has fragmented the CC so there’s no shared value system for R to reinforce
14
Q
(func) outline Malinowski’s psychological functions of religion
A
- Malinowski: agrees with Durkheim that R promotes solidarity
- but M thinks it does this by performing psychological functions, e.g. helping people cope with emotional stress
15
Q
(func) what is the 1st situation where Malinowski thinks R performs a psychological role
A
1) the outcome is important but uncontrollable: Tobriand islanders
- lagoon fishing: safe + uses predictable, successful methods of poisoning – uses no ritual
- ocean fishing: dangerous + uncertain, always accompanied by ‘canoe magic’ (rituals to ensure success + safety) - gives people a sense of control + confidence + reinforces group solidarity
16
Q
(func) how does Parsons say that R creates + legitimates society’s central values
A
- R creates + legitimates society’s central values by sacralising (giving value to) society’s central values
- this promotes a value consensus + social stability
- e.g. in USA Protestantism sacralised core American values of meritocracy, individualism etc
17
Q
(func) outline Parson’s concept of values and meaning
A
- like Malinowski, Parsons sees R as helping individuals to cope with unforeseen events + uncontrollable outcomes
- P identifies 2 other functions of R:
1) creating + legitimising society’s central values
2) being the primary source of meaning
18
Q
(func) how does Parsons say R is the primary source of meaning
A
- it answers ‘ultimate’ questions about society, like why the good suffer
- R provides the answers to these and so enables people to adjust to adverse events or circumstances + maintains stability
19
Q
(func) what does Bellah say about civil religion
A
- Bellah: CR integrates society in a way that churches/ denominations (e.g. Catholicism) cannot
- CR claims the loyalty of all Americans as it attaches sacred qualities (R) to society itself (the state) - this unifies people in a multi-faith society
- it does this through traditions + rituals - e.g. national anthem + the phrase ‘one nation under God’
20
Q
(func) outline the concept of civil religion
A
- a civil religion is a belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society, for example in the USA, CR is a faith in Americanism
21
Q
(func) what is an evaluation of civil religion
A
- can CR actually be considered a R if its not based on a belief in the supernatural
22
Q
(func) outline functional alternatives to R
A
- func alternatives are non-religious beliefs + practices that are equivalent to that of organised R
- e.g. reinforcing shared values / maintaining social cohesion
- for example, Nazi Germany had secular / non-R political beliefs through which they united society
23
Q
(func) outline AO3 evaluations of Functionalist views of R
A
- Func ignores the negative aspects that R performs - e.g. oppressing the poor + women
- it ignores R as a source of divisions + conflict, esp in modern societies with multiple religions - they don’t always promote integration
- Parsons bases his ideas on singular R beliefs within a society rather than the pluralistic approach - e.g. in UK there aren’t shared beliefs
24
Q
(Marx) outline the Marxist view of religion
A
- in the context of Marx’s general view of society (class divisions, capitalism etc), R is a feature of only class divided societies which maintains inequality
25
(Marx) outline R as an ideology
- Marx: R operates as an ideological tool used by the RC to legitimise the suffering of the poor as inevitable and God-given
- R dulls the pain of class inequalities + leads proletariat into a false state of consciousness - the poor accepts their low status as virtuous + kept complacent by rewards of afterlife
- R teaches WC to accept hierarchy + inequality as its 'as God made it'
26
(Marx) define ideology
- ideology = a belief system that distorts peoples perception of reality in ways that serve the interests of the RC
27
(Marx) what does Lenin say about R
- Lenin describes R as 'spiritual gin' - an intoxicant doled out to the masses by the RC to confuse + keep them in their place
- the RC uses R to manipulate the masses and keep them from revolting by creating a 'mystical fog' that obscures reality
28
(Marx) what is a Christian quote that justifies the class divide
- "it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than it is for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven"
29
(Marx) outline R and alienation
- R is the product of alienation as it emerges from + reflects the conditions of a society where people are alienated from their true nature, labour and relationships
- under Cap, workers are alienated as they have no control over the production process + no creative freedom
30
(Marx) outline R as an opiate
- Marx says how R acts as an opiate to dull/ mask the pain of exploitation instead of treating the cause
- R's promise of the afterlife distracts attention from the true source of suffering - capitalism
31
(Marx) outline AO3 evaluations of Marxist views of R
- Marx ignores the positive functions of R e.g. psychological adjustment to misfortune, Salvation Army (a R charity for WC)
- some Marxists, e.g. Althusser, rejects the concept of alienation as its unscientific/ based on a romantic idea
- R does not necessarily function effectively as an ideology to control the population - has a limited impact
- R can be an instigatory force for positive change - e.g. MLK with the Civil Rights movement
32
(Fem) outline the Feminist view of R
- R is regarded as a patriarchal institution that reflects + perpetuates patriarchal inequality through legitimising female subordination
33
(Fem) name the 5 aspects that display evidence of patriarchy in R
- religious organizations
- places of worship
- sacred texts
- religious laws and customs
- differential treatment
34
(Fem) outline religious organisations as evidence of patriarchy within R
- religious organisations are male dominated even though women participate more than men
- e.g. Orthodox Judaism + Catholicism forbid women to become priests
- this male domination allows for continued domination - e.g. their interpretation of sacred texts enables this
35
(Fem) outline places of worship as evidence of patriarchy within R
- often segregate the sexes + marginalize W
- W's participation is restricted even though they attend worship more than M - e.g. W aren't allowed to read from Torah in Orthodox Judaism
- e.g. in Islam, menstruating W aren't allowed to touch the Qur'an or enter a temple for Hinduism
36
(Fem) outline sacred texts as evidence of patriarchy within R
- largely feature male gods/ prophets + male experiences
- are mostly written + interpreted by men
- stories reflect anti-female stereotypes
- e.g. Eve in the Bible causes humanity's fall rom grace, God created Adam first, Mary Magdalene (a prostitute)
- W in the bible fall into 2 categories - the 'ideal', pure virgins, e.g. Virgin Mary, or the opposite - a whore, e.g. Mary Magdalene
37
(Fem) outline religious laws and customs as evidence of patriarchy within R
- gives W fewer rights than M - e.g. access to divorce, dress codes
- religious influence on cultural norms also leads to unequal treatment - e.g. genital mutilation, punishments for sexual transgressions
- R legitimizes W's traditional, reproductive + domestic role, e.g. Catholic Church bans abortion + contraceptives
38
(Fem) outline piety movements as an example of religious form of Feminism
- Piety movements: conservative movements that support trad teachings about W's role, modest dress, prayer + bible study
- Rinaldo: even within conservative religions, W are still able to further their own interests
- but its usually white MC W who have other resources (education, income) to pursue their goals in R
39
(Fem) outline Liberal Protestant organisations as an example of religious form of Feminism
- groups like Quakers and Unitarians are often committed to gender equality
- e.g. 1/3 of unitarian ministers are female
40
(Fem) outline Feminist criticisms that R does not subordinate W
- Armstrong: early R places W at the center - e.g. earth mother goddesses. it was the rise of monotheistic R that saw the establishment of all powerful male gods
- Saadawi: R is not the direct cause of female subordination - its the result of patriarchal societies coming into existence
- however, once in power, pat societies began to influence R - e.g. men began to interpret sacred texts to favour patriarchy
41
(Fem) outline Woodhead's religious forms of feminism
- Woodhead: whilst accepting that trad forms of R is patriarchal, she emphasizes that not all forms of R are - there are 'religious forms of feminism' - W are able to gain freedom + respect through R
- e.g. the hijab/ veil worn by Muslim W is seen as a tool of oppression by western Feminists, but the wearer sees it as liberating
42
(Func) outline 2 examples of how religion performs psychological functions (Malinowski)
- births: praying offers comfort if there are complications in birth
- deaths: funeral rituals reinforce social solidarity among survivors, whilst the notion of immortality beings comfort - Malinowski believes this is the main reason for religious belief
43
(func) what is the 2nd situation where Malinowski thinks R performs a psychological role
2) at times of life crisis:
- R helps to minimise the disruption in events such as birth, marriage, esp death
- e.g. the notion of immortality gives comfort to the grieving by denying the fact of death. M argues death is the main reason for R belief
44
(func) what does Parsons say the functions of R are
- Parsons: R provides guidelines for human action - provides core values of culture which promotes social solidarity + stabilisation
- R also provides meaning + answers the ultimate questions
45
(Fem) outline differential treatment as evidence of patriarchy within R
- W have to agree to obey their husband in Christian marriage vows - although can now opt not to say this
- in Islam a man can have up to 4 wives - W cannot do this
- in some areas of Iran, W may be flogged for not dressing correctly + stoned for adultery
- practices, e.g. honour killings of W, happen in Christian South America + Hindu India - doesn't happen for M
46
what does Sadaawi describe a headscarf as
- Sadaawi: the headscarf acts as a 'tool to oppress W'
47
outline the Hindu Caste System
- Hindus are taught that they're born into a specific caste/ social status which cannot be changed
- this position is a result of karma - pushes followers of the R into following the struct rules + norms in order to be reincarnated into a higher caste in future life
- this demonstrates + supports the Marxist idea that R acts as a conservative force of capitalist inequalities
48
outline an AO2 example of religion oppressing women
- in many religious, esp Muslim societies, e.g. in South Asia + Africa, Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is a common practice
- this plays further into the idea of the oppression of W + the idea of 'purity' to an extreme
