ideology and science Flashcards
1
Q
outline the impact + faith of science
A
- science has had an enormous impact on society over the last few centuries
- the achievements of medicine have eradicated once fatal diseases, transformed basic features of daily life (transport, comms, leisure etc)
- science + tech have also revolutionised economic productivity + raised living standards exponentially
- this has led to a widespread ‘faith in science’ - a belief it can deliver the good
2
Q
outline the negative impact + view of science
A
- recently, faith in the good of science has been dimmed by a recognition that science may cause problems as well as solve them
- pollution, global warming + weapons of mass destruction are all products of science
- science has created its own ‘manufactured risks’ that increasingly threaten the planet
3
Q
outline cognitive power of science
A
- both the good + bad effects of science demonstrate the key feature distinguishing it from other belief systems/ knowledge-claims - its ‘cognitive power’
- science enables us to explain, predict + control the world in a way that non-scientific or pre-scientific beliefs couldn’t do
4
Q
outline open belief systems
A
- Popper: science is an ‘open system’ where every scientist’s theories are open to scrutiny, criticism + testing by others
- science is governed by the principle of ‘falsificationism’ - in science, knowledge-claims live or die by evidence
- P says discarding falsified knowledge-claims is what enables scientific understanding of the world to grow
- science is ‘cumulative’ - it builds on previously accepted knowledge from scientists to develop a greater understanding of our world
5
Q
outline the concept of falsificationism
A
- falsificationism = scientists trying to deliberately falsify theories - if evidence contradicts a theory + shows it to be false, the theory can be discarded + the search for a better explanation begins
- Popper: any ‘law’ could at some point be falsified, no matter how many times it has been proved ‘correct’ in the past
6
Q
outline ‘truth’ of scientific theories
A
- despite achievements of great scientists, no theory is definitely true - there is always a possibility that evidence could disprove it
- Popper: the key thing about scientific knowledge is that its not sacred or the absolute truth - it can always be questioned, criticised, tested + perhaps shown as false
6
Q
outline the origins of scientific growth
A
- Merton: science can only thrive as a major social institution if it receives support from other institutions + values
- science has only grown so rapidly in the last few centuries as a result of the values created by the Protestant Reformation, esp Puritanism (form of Calvinism), who believed that the study of nature was an appreciation of God’s work, which encouraged them to experiment
- Puritanism also stressed social welfare + how technological inventions could improve life conditions
- this new science institution also received support from economy + military institutions as the applications of science became useful in areas such as minng, navgiation + weaponry
6
Q
outline the CUDOS norms
A
- Merton, like Popper, argues that science needs an ‘ethos’/ set of norms that make scientists act in ways that increase scientific knowledge
- Merton identifies 4 norms, known as CUDOS:
1) Communism: scientific knowledge isn’t private property - scientists must share it (publish it) - otherwise scientific knowledge cant grow
2) Universalism: the truth/ falsity of science is judged by universal, objective criteria, isn’t by the particular race, gender etc of that scientist
3) Disinterestedness: being committed to discovering knowledge for its own sake - publishing findings makes it harder for scientists to be fraudulent, as it enables others to check their claims
4) Organised Scepticism: no knowledge-claim is ‘sacred’ - every idea is open to question/ criticism + objective investigation
7
Q
outline closed belief systems
A
- science appears to differ fundamentally from trad religious belief systems
- while scientific knowledge is open to challenge, + potentially disprovable, R claims to have special knowledge of the absolute truth + a ‘get out’ clause
- R knowledge is scared + R organisations claim absolute truths with God’s word - so it cant be challenged - those who do, are punished - thus, R knowledge is fixed + doesn’t grow
7
Q
outline Horton’s view of closed belief systems
A
- Horton: distinguishes between open + closed belief systems;
- like Popper, he sees science as an open belief system, where knowledge-claims are open to criticism + can be disproved
- whereas, R, magic + other belief systems are closed - they make knowledge claims that can’t be disproved
- when fundamental beliefs are threatened, a closed belief system has varying ‘devices’ or ‘get-out clauses’ that reinforce the system + prevent it being disproved (in the eyes of believers)
- e.g. witchcraft beliefs have a self-reinforcing, closed belief system
8
Q
outline belief of coincidence/ natural events among the Azande
A
- the Azande believe that natural events have natural causes - e.g. the snake bit me because i accidentally stepped on it whilst walking down a path
- they don’t believe in chance or coincidence - i have walked down this path hundreds of times but never been bitten before - why me + now
- thus, when misfortune falls upon the Azande, they explain it as witchcraft - someone, e.g. a jealous neighbour, is practicing witchcraft against me
8
Q
outline the handling of witchcraft in the Azande
A
- in cases of witchcraft use, one may make an accusation against a suspected witch in which the matter will be settled by consulting the Prince’s magical poison oracle in which a chicken reveals whether or not the accused is the source of witchcraft by dying
- this is enough to end the problem
9
Q
outline Evans-Pritchard’s view of Azande witchcraft
A
- Evans-Pritchard: this belief system performs social functions of conformity + cooperation;
- it clears the air + prevents grudges, + also encourages neighbours to behave considerately to reduce risk of accusation
- also, since witchcraft is believed to be hereditary, children aim to keep their parents in line, as an accusation against a parent reflects on the child
- this belief system is also highly resistant to challenges - its a closed system that cant be overturned by evidence + believers are trapped in their own ‘idiom of belief’
10
Q
outline self-sustaining beliefs
A
- Polanyi: all belief systems have 3 devices to sustain themselves in the face of contradictory evidence;
1) circularity: each idea in the system is explained in terms of another idea - all ideas are reliant on others (e.g. God created the world, says so in Bible, God wrote it…)
2) subsidiary explanations: e.g. if the oracle fails, it may be explained away as due to the incorrect use of the poison
3) denial of legitimacy to rivals: belief systems reject alternative world views by refusing to grant any legitimacy to their assumption - e.g. creationism (earth originated from divine creation) rejects the evolutionists’ knowledge-claim of evolution
11
Q
outline science as a closed system
A
- contrary to Popper, other sociologists believe science can be seen as a self-sustaining or closed system of belief
- e.g. Polanyi: all belief systems reject fundamental challenges to their knowledge-claims - science is the same, e.g. case of Dr Velikovsky
12
Q
outline the case of Dr Velikovsky
A
- in 1950, Dr Velikovsky published ‘Worlds in Collision’ in which he put forward a new theory on the origins of the earth
- his theory challenged fundamental beliefs about geology, astronomy, biology etc
- the response from the science community wasn’t open, as Popper would claim - scientists rejected it without reading the book + boycotted V’s publisher + some supporters of the book even lost their jobs
- they did not test the new findings
13
Q
outline Kuhn’s explanation of science as a closed system
A
- Kuhn explains this refusal to consider scientific challenges by arguing that a mature science, e.g. biology, works within a framework of accepted facts (paradigms)
- these ‘facts’ tell scientists what reality is like, what to study, what methods + equipment to use, what counts as evidence, and what answers they should find in research
- paradigms provide broad outlines for scientists to fill in the details - those who work within the paradigm, are rewarded, e.g. research grants, Nobel Prizes etc, whereas, any scientist who challenges it, e.g. Velikovsky, are ridiculed + ostracised out of the profession
- scientific education + training socialises people into paradigms + a successful career depends on working within paradigms
14
Q
outline Kuhn’s concept of a scientific revolution
A
- the only exceptions to paradigms are during rare periods described by Kuhn as ‘scientific revolutions’
- this is when faith in the truth of the paradigm has already been undermined by an accumulation of anomalies - results that Ps cant account for
- only then do scientists become open to radically new ideas
15
Q
outline the sociology of scientific knowledge
A
- Interpretivist sociologists have built upon Kuhn’s ideas in which they argue that all knowledge, including scientific knowledge, is socially constructed - isnt the objective truth
- it is instead created by social groups using resources available to them
- in the case for science, this is scientific ‘facts’, things scientists take to be true + real which are the product of shared theories + paradigms that tell them what to expect to see + of the particular instruments they use
15
Q
outline Knorr-Cetina’s view of the sociology of scientific knowledge
A
- Knorr-Cetina: the invention of new instruments, e.g. telescopes, microscopes, allows scientists to make new observations + fabricate new ‘facts’
- K-C also points out that what scientists study in a lab is highly ‘constructed’ + far removed from the natural world of their study, e.g. water is purified, animals specifically bred, etc
15
Q
outline the little green men
A
- in the discovery of ‘pulsars’ (pulsating neuron stars) by Cambridge in 1967, scientists initially annotated the patterns shown as ‘LGM1’, ‘LGM2’, etc - standing for Little Green Men
- recognising that this was an unacceptable interpretation from the viewpoint of the science community which would’ve ended their careers if published, they settled on the notion that the patterns were of a star unknown to science
- however, more than a decade on, there was still disagreement among astronomers as to what the signals really meant
- Woolgar: a scientific fact is simply a social construction/ belief that is spread - isn’t necessarily true
16
Q
outline Woolgar’s view of science
A
- ethnomenthodologist Woolgar: scientists are engaged in the same process of ‘making sense’ or interpretating the world as everyone else
- they have to decide the meaning of ‘evidence’ from observations + experiments - they do so by devising + applying theories/ explanations but then also have to persuade others to accept their interpretation
16
Q
outline the negative use of ‘ideology’ in sociology
A
- in sociology, the term ‘ideology’ is often used in a negative context, e.g;
- distorted, false or mistaken ideas about the world, or a partial, one-sided biased view of reality
- thus, when someone uses the term ideology to describe a belief system, it means they regard it as morally/ factually wrong
16
Q
outline Marxism and ideology
A
- M sees society as divided into 2 classes (proletariat + bourgeoisie) in which the WC is exploited
- thus, workers’ must overthrow capitalism through a socialist revolution
- for this rev to occur, WC must develop a class conscious + overcome the RC ideological monopoly held that justifies the status quo
RC ideology includes; - equality doesn’t work as it goes against ‘human nature’, victim blaming about poverty - Bowles + Gintis’ ‘the poor are dumb’ theory of meritocracy, racist ideas of inferiority of EMs, dividing Black + White workers
- thus, the RC ideology dominates + suppresses the WC and creates a false consciousness among workers
17
Q
define ideology
A
- ideology = a worldview or a set of ideas + values (belief system)
- e.g. Science, religion are both ideologies
17
Q
outline the view of Marxism + feminism on science
A
- critical perspectives, e.g. Marxism + Feminism, see scientific knowledge as constructed by those in power - the ruling class or men
- many advances in science have been driven by the need of capitalism
- e.g. theoretical work on ballistics (physics) was driven by the need to develop weaponry
- similarly, biological ideas have been used to justify both male domination + colonial expansion - thus science can be seen as a form of ideology - e.g. Parsons idea of bio differences in the fam
18
Q
outline the view of Postmodernism on science
A
- Postmodernists also reject the knowledge-claims of science to have ‘the truth’
- Lyotard: science is one of many ‘meta-narratives’ that claim the truth
- science falsely claims to find the truth about how the world works as a means to progress society, whereas in reality science is another ‘discourse’ used to dominate people
- like Marxists, science has become ‘technoscience’, existing to serve the capitalist interests by producing commodities for profit
19
Q
outline hegemony and revolution
A
- Gramsci: refers to the RC ideological domination as hegemony
- the WC can develop ideas that challenge RC hegemony as workers have a dual-consciousness
- it is thus possible for the WC to class consciousness + overthrow capitalism with the political party of ‘organic intellectuals’
20
Q
outline an evaluation of hegemony and revolution
A
- critics argue that its not the existence of a dominant ideology that keeps workers in line + prevents attempts to overthrow capitalism
- Abercrombie: its the economic factors, e.g. fear of unemployment that keep workers from rebelling
21
Q
outline the ideology of nationalism
A
- nationalism is an important political ideology that has had a major impact on the world over the last 200yrs
nationalism claims that; - nations are real, distinctive communities with its own unique characteristics + a long shared history
- every nation should be self-governing
- national loyalty + identity should come before all others, e.g. tribe, class or religion
- Anderson: a nation is only an ‘imagined community’, not a real one - though we identify with it, we will never know most other members - this imagined community binds millions of strangers together to create a sense of shared purpose
21
Q
outline nationalism as a false consciousness
A
- Marx was an internationalist, as in Marxism, nationalism is a form of false class consciousness that helps prevent the overthrow of capitalism by dividing the international WC
- nationalism encourages workers to believe they have more in common with the capitalists of their own country than workers of other countries - this allows the ruling classes to persuade the working classes to fight wars on their behalf
22
Q
outline functionalism’s view of nationalism as a civil religion
A
- Functionalists see nationalism as a secular civil religion - like R, it integrates inds into larger social + political units by making them feel part of something greater than themselves
- in mod secular societies, people may not believe in supernatural beings, but are willing to see themselves part of a nation
- mod societies also contain diff faiths, so R can be a source of division, whereas nationalism as a civil R unites everyone into a single national community, regardless of differences, e.g R, class
23
Q
outline Gellner’s view of nationalism and modernity
A
- Gellner: sees nationalism as false consciousness; its claim that nations have existed since time began is untrue
- G: nationalism is a new phenomenon - e.g. pre-industrial societies were held together by face-to-face relationships in small communities with fixed hierarchy of ascribed statuses
- mod society is very diff - industrialisation created large scale, impersonal societies with a complex division of labour, where citizens are equal
- mod states need means of enabling communication between strangers, esp in the economy - using a mass state education system to impose 1 standard national culture + language on every member
- elites use nationalism as an ideology to motivate the population to endure the hardships + suffering accompanied by industrialisation, enabling the state to modernise
23
Q
outline Mannheim’s view of ideology + utopia
A
- Mannheim: studied ideology between WW1-2 - a time of intense political + social conflict which influenced his views
- M: sees all belief systems as a partial/ one-sided worldview; their one-sidedness is due to the viewpoint of 1 group/ class + their interests
- M sees his 2 belief systems as groups of intellectuals who attach themselves to particular classes - e.g. role of organic intellectuals to create communist society
- but, because these intellectuals represent the interests of particular groups - not society as a whole - they only produce partial views of reality
- M: this creates conflict for society - diff intellectuals linked to diff groups + classes produce opposing ideas that justify the interests + claims of their group against the other
24
Q
outline Mannheim’s 2 types of belief systems/ worldviews
A
Mannheim distinguishes between 2 types of belief systems;
1) ideological thought: justifies keeping the status quo - reflects the position + interests of privileged groups, e.g. capitalist class who benefit from maintaining the status quo, so their belief system is conservative + favours hierarchy
2) utopian thought: justifies social change, reflects the position + interests of the underprivileged + offers a vision of an alternate society, e.g. the WC are disadvantaged by the status quo + favour radical change to a classless society
25
Q
outline the free-floating intelligentsia
A
- Mannheim: the solution for one sided belief systems is to ‘detach’ intellectuals from their represented social groups + create a non-aligned/ ‘free floating intelligentsia’ standing above conflict
- freed from representing the interests of groups, they can synthesise (combine) elements of diff partial ideologies + utopias to create a ‘total’ worldview that represents the interests of society as a whole
- but, many elements of diff political ideologies are polarised + its hard to imagine how these could combine
- e.g. how could Marxist ideas about the need to create a classless society be combined with the Conservative idea that hierarchy is essential + beneficial
26
Q
outline Feminism and ideology
A
- Feminists: see gender inequality as the fundamental division in society, with patriarchal ideology legitimating it
- there are many justifications of widespread gender differences - e.g. Marks: scientific ideas justify the exclusion of W from education, as educating W would lead to the creation of ‘a new race of puny + unfeminine’ females (19th century doctors)
- also, R beliefs + practices also are used to define W as inferior, e.g. W are unclean/ impure due to childbirth + menstruation
26
Q
outline an evaluation of the Feminist view of ideology
A
- not all elements of religious belief systems subordinate W
- e.g. before the emergence of monotheistic patriarchal Rs, matriarchal Rs w/ female deities were widespread, with F priests
- also in Hinduism, goddesses have often been portrayed as creators of the universe
27
Q
outline Lynch’s view of science
A
- Lynch: science is far less objective that scientists claim;
- L studied scientists experimenting on lab rats + concluded that scientists were influenced by existing theories
- e.g. when anomalies occurred in results, scientists put it down to errors in the photographs they were studying, rather than seeing them as evidence towards a new theory/ hypothesis
28
Q
outline education as an example of a civil religion
A
- Functionalists: education plays an important part in creating social solidarity, which can include collective rituals involving nationalist symbols, e.g. the flag + national anthem, as well as learning the nation’s history
