Theories

Question 1

Theories-Why do we need theories?

Fredrickson et al., 2012

Answer 1

Why do we need theories? (Frederickson, Smith, Larimer, and Licari (2012))

—three key points necessary for all theories is it’s capacity to:

1) Describe – ever-evolving phenomenon
2) Explain - can lead to inconsistencies based on preconceived ideas, culture, or language
3) Predict (social phenomena) – there are examples of the unethical use of the predictive capabilities of social and scientific theory

Example: attempting to identify criminals prior to any offense based on characteristics of prior offenders

Question 2

Theories-What is theory? (informal definition)

Fredrickson et al., 2012

Answer 2

Fredrickson et al., 2012

From an informal perspective, theory is “simply an orientation, framework, technique, or approach” (p. 7)

Question 3

Theories-What are three important features in theories?

Fredrickson et al., 2012

Answer 3

1) First, theory maintains a “rigorous testing of predictive theorems or hypotheses using observable and comparable data. These hypotheses, once tested and verified, form the basis of theories, assertions, or representations of reality” (p. 7). Because public administration falls within the realm of social sciences, which is centered on human behaviors and actions, the resulting theories are routinely challenged by the unpredictability of human behavior and actions.
2) A second feature of theory is the “ordering of factual material (history, events, cases, stories, measures of opinion, observation) so as to present evidence through definitions, concepts, and metaphors that promote understanding” (Frederickson et al., p. 7, 2012). This feature of theory, within the social sciences, is often heavily scrutinized because the scientist is often viewing the problem and applying a solution through lenses of subjectivity.
3) The third and final characteristic, according to Frederickson et al. (2012), is the “meaning of theory is normative—theories of what ought to be” (p, 7). With this characteristic, theories within public administration and organization must be reliable and dependable within the field of public administration, and equally important, across the closely related disciplines of political science and organization theory.

Question 4

Theories-What are three key factors for theories to prevent theories from being successful?
Fredrickson et al., 2012

Answer 4

1) First, the complex nature of social events lends to the difficulties associated with attempting to describe these ever-evolving phenomenon.
2) Second, when viewed through the subjective lenses of a scientist, describing and explaining a social event can lead to inconsistencies based on preconceived ideas, culture, or language.
3) The final component of an effective theory, the ability to predict, is worth closer investigation. There are numerous examples of the ethical use of social and scientific theory throughout history. However, and more sobering, history is replete with the unethical and immoral predictive capabilities of theory. One example of the potential unethical and immoral predictive capacity of theory can be found in the criminal justice field. Phrenology, which was developed in the early 19th century, is the theory that criminals and deviants had certain and specific orientations and features of their skull (Rafter, 2005, p. 65). This theory not only attempted to describe and explain criminal and deviant behavior, but more alarming, it attempted to identify criminals and deviants prior to any offending in an attempt to reduce crime rates. The practice of phrenology, which is quickly dismissed today, was a staple in the criminal justice field of that era.

Question 5

Theories-What is a theoretical framework?

Fredrickson et al., 2012

Answer 5

In general, theoretical frameworks are used to guide the explanation, development, or implementation of specific phenomena, new ideas, or systems. Theories are not meant to define a field, or provide a one-size-fit all approach, rather it provides the framework to develop or explain a phenomenon in a manner that is relevant and tailored to the needs of the present issue (Fredrickson et al., 2012).

Question 6

Theories-Why is a theoretical framework necessary?

Answer 6

To produce change that is both long-lasting and effective, a systematic framework is necessary (Fredrickson et al., 2012)

Due to the interdisciplinary nature of public administration, many concepts and elements of public administration are subjective and the precision and specificity of public administration theories will vary. Nevertheless, when useful and effective public administration theoretical frameworks are used, they increase our understanding and provide guidance for future decision-making.

Question 7

Theories-Why are theories necessary?

Answer 7

According to Fredrickson et al. (2012), theory is needed in public administration to provide a framework that allows for “conceptual clarity” and reliability of the field itself. In public administration theoretical frameworks are used to explain the assumptions that guide action at various political and organizational levels (Fredrickson et al., 2012).

Question 8

Theories-What is the problem with PA theories?

Stillman 1999

Answer 8

The problem of PA theory in America is a continued failure to define its scope and substance as a coherent theory

Question 9

Theories-What are 3 important conferences related to PA?

Answer 9

1) 1967 APSA Conference American Academy of Political & social science) –Attendees were older administrative scholars. The conference produced diverse, contradictory, statements about the future directions of the field of PA
2) Minnowbrook Conference of 1968 - Younger administrative scholars. Purpose was to focus on the status of PA theory and to discuss issues important to the attendees and to search for a new PA that would speak to current issues. Resulted again in a diversity of thoughts, opinions, and these. Themes included “an enhancement of life opportunities”, a “politics of love”, and social equity and a supporting model
3) Minnowbrook II Conference of 1988 – attended by young scholars in PA. Purpose was to compare and contrast the perspectives of the 2 groups on the state of PA and its future. Resulted in the groups focusing on definite topics for PA.

Question 10

Theories-What are 3 theoretical images for PA?

Answer 10

1) One best way – emphasized a single, specific and correct view for doing and thinking about PA, characterized by laws and science or the management principles. These type of theories were a one shop fit all type doctrines favoring single solutions derived from the application of correct methodologies (1999).
2) Theory of Dualism – The Theory of Dualism focused on a repeated contest between two alternative theoretical perspectives. Outcomes are determined by a continuous clash of polar opposites, such as the behaviorists contrast those who favor behavioral methods with the formal structuralists.
3) Theory of Pluralism - holds that diversity of opinions and points of view is not only an appropriate way to explain present reality but is a positive strength in define public administration. This theory suggests that struggle between numerous ideas, philosophies, and perspectives reflect health, not weakness, in the field of public administration. The Theory of Pluralism seems to fit the results of the 1988 Minnowbrook 11 Conference.

Question 11

Theories-What are 6 characteristics of bureaucracy?

Weber 1973

Answer 11

1) Hierarchy

Activities as official duties,  
Authority to issue commands,  
Continuous fulfillment via methodical provisions (recruitment, retention, and the likes) 

2) Varying levels of fixed authority (task differentiation)
3) Guiding principles in the form of written documents. Officials utilize these written rules to establish structure.
4) Specially trained office management (experts in a specific field)
5) Shared authority between ranked officials
6) Well-trained executives (specialized knowledge as opposed to a generalist)

Question 12

Theories-What is a bureaucracy?

Answer 12

Bureaucracy refers to both a body of non-elective government officials and an administrative policy-making group.

Historically, a bureaucracy was a government administration managed by departments staffed with non-elected officials.

Today, bureaucracy is the administrative system governing any large institution, whether publicly owned or privately owned. The public administration in many countries is an example of a bureaucracy, but so is the centralized hierarchical structure of a business firm.Since being coined, the word bureaucracy has developed negative connotations.

Bureaucracies have been criticized as being inefficient, convoluted, or too inflexible to individuals

Question 13

Theories-What is the role of a bureaucrat?

Answer 13

Bureaucrats play various roles in modern society, by virtue of holding administrative, functional, and managerial positions in government. They carryout the day-to-day implementation of enacted policies for central government agencies, such as postal services, education and healthcare administration, and various regulatory bodies.

Question 14

Theories-What are 7 characteristics of a bureaucrat?

Weber

Answer 14

1) He is personally free and appointed to his position on the basis of conduct.
2) He exercises the authority delegated to him in accordance with impersonal rules, and his loyalty is enlisted on behalf of the faithful execution of his official duties.
3) His appointment and job placement are dependent upon his technical qualifications.
4) His administrative work is a full-time occupation.
5) His work is rewarded by a regular salary and prospects of advancement in a lifetime career.
6) He must exercise his judgment and his skills, but his duty is to place these at the service of a higher authority. Ultimately he is responsible only for the impartial execution of assigned tasks and must sacrifice his personal judgment if it runs counter to his official duties.
7) Bureaucratic control is the use of rules, regulations, and formal authority to guide performance. It includes such things as budgets, statistical reports, and performance appraisals to regulate behavior and results.

Question 15

Theories-Why is this important to understand bureaucracy?

Answer 15

Weber (1973, 2012) identifies rational-legal authority with bureaucracy in the sense that it is a legal system; well structured and organized. It deviates from the traditional construct where decisions were made on a basis of ‘efficiency’ as opposed to rationality. It is important to understand this in regards to a bureaucracy, and recognize it as a well incorporated system of checks and balances that depends on a constantly developing network of evolving layers of authority; etc.

Question 16

Theories-What is rational-legal authority?

Answer 16

authoritative organization based on rational thinking

Question 17

Theories-What is “Ideal type’ construct”?

Answer 17

Weber’s ‘ideal type’ is an organization consists of appointed, not elected, officials. “The pure type of bureaucratic official is appointed by superior authority. An official elected by the governed is not a purely bureaucratic figure” (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012, p. 47). The ideal figure is one that is appointed based on qualifications “as opposed to the guild-like closure of officialdom (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012).

Question 18

Theories-How and why does Weber use the ‘ideal type construct’?

Answer 18

Weber developed a key conceptual tool, the ideal construct in order to investigate ideas and compare them with standard concepts. The ideal construct provides the basic method for comparative study. An ideal construct is not based on what is morally right but on the synthesis and integration of analytical ideas. Ideal types enable one to construct hypotheses linking them with the conditions that brought the phenomenon or event into being or with consequences that follow from its emergence (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012).

Question 19

Theories-Did Weber advocate/support bureaucratic model of organizing?

Answer 19

Weber seems to establish a model for bureaucratic entities to follow. His ideas outline what roles certain characters in the bureaucracy must follow to ensure the most efficiency. Weber believed, however, the efficiency of bureaucracy enables it to achieve political power (Goodsell, 2015, p. 2). Weber warned a regime’s leadership could become overwhelmed due to concentrated efforts of the bureaucratic process (Goodsell, 2015). Weber (Shafritz& Hyde, 2012) provided a structure model of bureaucracy as a guideline.

Question 20

Theories-What is Weber’s position on power in bureaucracy?

Answer 20

According to Classics of Public Administration (Shafritz& Hyde, 2012), the example provides a structure of Weber’s beliefs of bureaucracy, and as presented by the text, Weber appears to advocate bureaucracy. However, according to Ostrom (2008), Weber was very concerned about the bureaucrat obtaining a great power over the political system. This leads to the belief, Weber was skeptical of the system. In Weber’s mind, the established bureaucracy may not be perfect, but it is all we have to work with. Weber looked at bureaucracy as necessary, but with a cautious mindset over the absolute power that could be wielded by the bureaucratic machine (Ostrom, 2008).

Question 21

Theories-What is the purpose of Godsell’s book?

Answer 21

The major purpose of Charles Goodsell’s book titled The Case for Bureaucracy (2004) is to defend bureaucracy in the United States. His book is structured in a legal brief that maintains that there is a gap between bureaucracy’s reputation and actual record. Although not a perfect system, Goodsell argues that without bureaucracy the business of government could never be done.

Question 22

Theories-What is the purpose of Godsell’s book?

Answer 22

Goodsell was compelled to write this book because he wanted to show that despite the negative images portrayed by the media, most bureaucratic institutions are actually quite efficient. On a daily basis these institutions get work done efficiently however when one problem occurs, the media blows it out of proportion. Goodsell challenges the critics of bureaucracy by arguing that we do not give bureaucratic institutions enough credit as many employees are often tasked with tedious jobs that are highly difficult and pay very little. In fact, many bureaucratic institutions have a complex operational dilemma, which involves their caseload. At an operational level, bureaucratic institutions are given too many tasks but they are expected to make progress. Goodsell argues that Americans “expect government to make progress for them, no matter the obstacle, costs, or intractability of the problem.” (Goodsell, 2004, p. 59). Bureaucratic organizations are given multiple layers of tasks and problems to fix; hence, their challenge is to do both what is expected and in a manner that is acceptable to the public.

Question 23

Theories-What is the purpose of Godsell’s book?

Answer 23

Another common misconception is that bureaucracies are always large. Goodsell argues that many college textbooks stress bureaucracy’s size, power, and uncontrollably. Despite this perception, bureaucracies are not one aggregate mega institution but thousands of separate organizations. These various organizations are very diverse and have unique characteristics. In fact, Goodsell claims that most bureaucratic organizations are quite small with less than 25 employees. . In his study, he compares private and public services in Georgia. When citizens completed surveys on satisfaction of the U.S. Post Office compared to private mail carriers the numbers were comparable.

Question 24

Theories-What is the purpose of Godsell’s book?

Answer 24

In conclusion, Goodsell challenges critics of bureaucracy to use data that are more empirical to support their claims. The constant attack on bureaucratic institutions is purely based on anecdotes or on deductive arguments. Furthermore, the charges against bureaucracies are inconsistent and often contradictory. Despite the public perception over the years, bureaucratic systems actually do meet the needs of citizens despite challenges.

Question 25

Theories-What are the foundations of theories of political control?

Answer 25

The foundations of the theories of political control of bureaucracy are steeped in a distrust of administration. (Fredrickson et al., 2012)

Question 26

Theories-What is the control-of-bureaucracy theory?

Answer 26

The control-of-bureaucracy theory is an approach to the public administration theory particular associated with matters of compliance and responsiveness (Frederickson, Smith, Larimer, & Licari, 2012). This compliance refers to how the bureaucracy responds to existing laws and policy, and also how the bureaucracy replies to the preference of lawmakers, decision makers, and policy setters.

Question 27

Theories-What is the backbone of the control-of-bureaucracy theory?

Answer 27

In relation to control of bureaucracy theory, there are questions of accountability, power, and government and administrative structure. The backbone of this theory is Wilson’s PA dichotomy. Theorists accept this dichotomy in order to address questions of compliance and power. Without his dichotomy, the overlapping of government policy makers and administrators would make research and analysis of administration extremely difficult. (Frederickson et al., 2012; Wilson, 1887)

Question 28

Theories-What is the Wilson’s model of the control-of-bureaucracy theory?

Answer 28

Wilson’s model might be best conceptualized as a middle ground, centrist approach that rises above leadership and party politics. Though the responsibility for implementation lies with the leadership, public attention and public opinion serve as a de facto check system to ensure that the machine s running efficiently to act on the philosophical and constitutional will of the people. Wilson viewed his dichotomy as the ideal way to structure the American administration system and control-of-bureaucracy theorists see it as the best way to research policy and administration

Question 29

Theories-What is the focus of control-of-bureaucracy theory?

Answer 29

The focus of control-of-bureaucracy theories is the relationship between the bureaucracy and issues of compliance and the preferences of those setting policy. Wilson’s ideal role of administrators is to implement policy, which means that the policy is set by elected officials and then enforced by administrators. However, the power over both policy and bureaucracy is rarely completely dichotomous. This theory attempts to determine if the power over the policy resides with the politicians that are elected in part to set policy or with the bureaucrats that should be implementing the policy. (Fredrickson et al., 2012)

Question 30

Theories-What is the question of control-of-bureaucracy theory?

Answer 30

The main question for control-of-bureaucracy theorists is, “does the bureaucracy comply with the law or with the preferences of lawmakers or elected executives. Political control of bureaucracy theory seeks to determine where the power over policy resides. Does it reside with the politicians who are elected in part to set policy or with the bureaucrats that should be implementing policy? (Fredrickson et al., 2012)

Question 31

Theories-What are the PA dichotomy assumptions? (Fredrickson et al., 2012)

Answer 31

There are significant distinctions between political and administrative phenomena in democratic government – necessary for the study of power relations in bureaucracy and politics. Allowing these distinctions can avoid the jumble of politics, policy, and bureaucracy. Primary distinction is that policy setting is under the purview of politics and implementation is under administration.

Elected officials should be in at least partial control of appointed officials. - the theory assumes that in democratic self-government, elected officials, including legislators and executives (presidents, governors, mayors), should control the decisions and actions of appointed (usual civil service) officials.

Question 32

Theories-Significance of theories of political control.

Answer 32

it provides for the analysis of PA by making distinctions between political and administrative acts or actions and/or between political and administrative actors. Defining, operationalizing, and making distinctions between politics and administration allows for an analysis of administration and its place in a democratic government.

Question 33

Theories-Key People for theories of political control

Stillman 1991

Answer 33

Stillman 1991 – defined statelessness as the lack of all or most national functions, structure, and people. (No constitution or administration). Because our desire to move away from the monarchy, the colonies were not eager to centralize government. The individual states wanted autonomy, yet felt the importance of having a unified presence. Described changes in the forming government through the works of other scholars and the actions of key political individuals of the time. Critiqued Wilson’s dichotomy.

Question 34

Theories-Key People for theories of political control

Wilson (1887)

Answer 34

Woodrow Wilson (1887) – in his essay “the Study of Administration” argued that the US had moved into an era of “constitution –operating” and there needed to be an administrative design – a public administration – rooted in the mechanisms and designs of the constitution itself. Suggested an administration machine connected to all three branches of the government, independent from all, in keeping with the constitution.

Question 35

Theories-Wilson’s view on PA

Answer 35

His goal for studying PA was to determine what the government can do and then do those things efficiently within the context of the US constitution

“Administration is the most obvious part of government; it is governing in action, it is the executive, the operative, the most visible side of government, and is of course as old as government itself”

Stated that politics was activity “in things great and universal” and administration was activity “in individual and small things”. Administration is, therefore, the implementation of politics

Focus on openly running the business of administration so that officials are seen as instruments of administration versus instruments of power

Question 36

Theories-Key People for theories of political control

Waldo 1952

Answer 36

Waldo (1952)- reviewed and then discredited Simon’s concept of efficiency, stating the pure concept of efficiency proposed by Gulick as the basic good of administrative study is a mirage. Waldo did not agree that efficiency could be sued as a normative value in measuring the effectiveness of public administration.

Question 37

Theories-Waldo’s view on PA

Answer 37

Another argument was the limitations of science present in the field of PA. Science deals with “what is the case?” or “what is to be”, where as PA deals with “what is to be done” or what ought to be”.

Felt that policy and administration belong on the same side of the equation unlike the dichotomy

Believed science limits what can be done in administrative affairs

Question 38

Theories-Key People for theories of political control

Simon

Answer 38

Simon (Harmon (1989) – had rebuttals to Waldo’s critiques. Simon argued that he was trying to establish the logical basis for the idea of political accountability of administrators to their political superiors. Necessary to determine the distinction between facts and values. Argued that the basis of PA could be defined by he facts and values associated with the philosophy surrounded by logical positivist as well as the dichotomy of policy and PA.

Logical positivism – a theory that proposes a statement is meaningful only if it is either purely formal by nature (math or logic) or if it is capable of empirical verification.

Question 39

Theories-Key People for theories of political control

Taylor 1947

Answer 39

Frederick Taylor (1947)- unsatisfied with traditional forms of management Taylor formed a new management philosophy based on scientific data. His principles of scientific management seek to establish a management technique focused on efficient use of time, energy, and resources. Under scientific management,managers should establish the most efficient technique to performing workers’ tasks instead of workers determining the techniques used on the job.

Argued that the “one best way’ of management is through the principle of scientific management. Not a fixed concept – once managers find the most efficient way of completing a task, they continue to reevaluate the process and make changes where they find it necessary. Match a man to expertise. train the man to do specific work

Question 40

Theories-Goodnow’s defense of PA dichotomy

Answer 40

Other classic works of Goodnow argue that there are two basic functions of government: the expression of the popular will and the execution of that will (Waldo, 1948, 2007). The three traditional powers were derived from the two functions, and each of the three branches of government combined in different measure both the expression and the execution of the popular will. He discovered the “Primary Functions of the State” to be two and proceeded to state “actual political necessity requires that there shall be harmony between the expression and the execution of the state will.” “Lack of harmony between the law and its exaction results in political paralysis. A rule of conduct, i.e. an expression of the state will practically amount to nothing if it is not executed” (Waldo, 1948, 2007). In other words, practical political necessities make impossible the consideration of the function of politics apart for that of administration. Politics must have a certain control over administration (Waldo, 1948, 2007).

This “certain control” may be found either within the governmental system; or if the formal governmental system attempts to enforce a separation of powers, “outside of that system and I the political party,” as has happened in the United States (Waldo, 1948, 2007). The problem lies in what is considered the “necessary” control of administration by politics.

Question 41

Theories-Urwick & Gulicks defense of PA dichotomy

Answer 41

Theories-Urwick & Gulicks defense of PA dichotomy
Urwick edited the most important work, Papers on the Science of Administration presented by Gulick in 1937. Both of these thinkers were greatly influenced by Fayol and Taylor and the idea of machine model of the man. All this combined with their respective military and industrial background led them to propose the Classical Theory of Management or the Administrative Management Theory. The classical theory projects public administration as a science. Both these authors argued that like the stream of engineering became science through methods of empirical observation, systematic finding and recordings over a period of time similarly, public administrators can create the science of administration

Both the authors also stressed on the importance of the structure of the organization. Urwick wrote that lack of structure can lead to a lot of inefficiencies and confusion within an organization and Gulick went ahead to identify 10 principles on which the organizational structure can be designed.

Question 42

Theories-Gulick’s 10 principles on which the organizational structure can be designed

Answer 42

1) Division of labor or what we call specialization
2) Departmental Organization
3) Hierarchical coordination
4) Deliberate coordination
5) Creating coordination committees
6) Decentralization
7) Unity of command
8) Staff and Line
9) Delegation and Span of Control

The last principle regarding the span of control of a senior executive or a leader, acted as a stimulant for other authors on writing about leadership. According to this last principle, the executive should have less number of people directly reporting to him to increase his efficiency.

Question 43

Theories-Urwick’s principles on which an organization can function.

Answer 43

Urwick believed that there are 8 principles on which an organization can function, the important points being:

The objective of the organization 
Authority and responsibility 
The principle of span of control 
Coordination 
The principle of definition amongst other principles

Question 44

Theories-Guulick theory of executive functions (POSDCORB)

Answer 44

P - Planning 
O - Organizing 
S - Staffing 
D - Directing 
CO - Coordination 
R - Reporting 
B - Budgeting

Question 45

Theories-Bureaucratic Model Comparison

Answer 45

There is considerable overlap between Wilson’s politics-administration dichotomy and Weber’s ideal bureaucracy (Wilson, 1887; Weber, 1946):

—Both believed that public administration and politics should be separated;
—Each spoke to the employment of qualified persons to oversee administrative functions, with specialized training as a core component;
—Both argued in favor of a hierarchical system of management;
—Each focused on shared authority as means to bridge gaps between offices (though Wilson’s was loftier in terms of scope);
—In terms of “broad strokes,” there is a consistency between their writings that includes a linear or progressive modernization necessitating the implementation of an administrative bureaucracy; and
—Lastly, the end goal for both frameworks is efficiency.

Question 46

Theories-Critiques of Wilson

(Stillman 1991)

Answer 46

—Stillman described America’s growth as piecemeal and described Wilson’s ideas as willy-nilly, without plan, the Wilsonian middle way
—Stillman critique was constitutionality because it is developed by the state, presumably to fill in the cracks, either will always be questions of legitimacy and arguments can be made either way
—Stillman noted most Americans would agree that administration in America is a confusing mess.
—Bureaucracy mentality that pervades the American collective conscious due to disorganization or constant reorganization
—Others (NOT STILLMAN) have noted Wilson’s ideal dichotomy is impossible to achieve because the one way approach would never allow for administrators to influence policy while denying politicians influence over administration. The practical realities of money and influence cannot be as easily separated as Wilson hoped. Svara, J.H. (1998).

Question 47

Theories-Principal-agent theories

Answer 47

Bureaucracies are out of control or at the least difficult to control

Legislature (principal) relies on bureaucrats (agents) due to complexity of problems

Assumes the relationship between elected officials (principals) and civil servants and bureaucracy (agents) is hierarchical and could be understood as a series of contracts or transactions between a buyer of services and a provider of services

Bureaucracies have advantage of elective officials due to expertise and knowledge and an “manipulate” politicians for political gain

Views organizational interactions as relationships between a principle, who as a job to be done, and an agent, who agrees to do the job in exchange for compensation. Theory is used to explain how organizations work as networks of contract-based principal-agent relationships and why people do what they do.

Moral hazard is used to explain the risk factor in the relationship between the principal and agent. States that there is some risk assumed by the principal when an agent is hired. The principal cannot know enough about the agent’s behavior to be sure that their performance matches the terms of the contract. Can be reduced by the principal monitoring the agent and providing incentives adjustment for the agent. (Ex principal – voter, agent – candidate)

Question 48

Theories-capture theory

Answer 48

Agencies are heavily influenced by elites or constituents.

Iron Triangle dominated by business interests

Focuses primarily on federal government, study of regulatory processes and independent regulatory commissions. The theory states that regulated or licensed industries come through time, to heavily influence or even control their regulators.

The bureaucratic process is dominated by a trio of policy actors: interest groups, congressional oversight committee, and a government agency.

Question 49

Theories-Client responsiveness theory

Answer 49

Respond to constituent’s needs.

Street level bureaucrats.

It is assumed that jurisdictions establish institutions such as police, schools, and welfare agencies. Elected political leaders set policy, establish budgets, and use a merit-based civil service system for employing bureaucrats to carry out the work. This work is direct service and the bureaucrats do not seem themselves as such (police officers and teachers). These bureaucrats favor autonomy and work for their clients

Client responsiveness is traditional public administration theory emphasizing effectiveness and values of efficiency, economy, and equity.

Question 50

Theories-Representative bureaucracy

Answer 50

Term coined by J. Donald Kingsley (Kislow 1974; Selden 1997)

The central tenet of representative bureaucracy is that “a bureaucracy reflecting the diversity of the community it serves is more likely to respond to the interests of all groups in making policy decisions (Krislov 1974; Selden 1997).

Organizations perform better when they mirror he demographics of clients

Therefore, if bureaucracies can sympathize with and represent the diverse interests of the citizenry through decision-making and behavior, the bureaucracy itself can be considered a representative institution my means of democratic values of majority rule, minority rights, and equal representation. (Frederickson, et al., p. 60)

In many cases, there is value in applying representative bureaucracy to the day-to-day operation of government. One could assert that an inherit value is found in the representative bureaucracy theory’s rejection of patronage and acceptance of the merit system, efficiency, and strengthening the role of technical expertise in decision-making. (Fredrickson, et al., p. 61)

The theory also operates under the premise that there is good reason for government agencies to be organized in an undemocratic manner because they exercise considerable political power.

Since not all day-to-day implementation and enforcement operations are covered in statues, it is important for bureaucrats to assume discretionary decision-making authority. Additionally, street-level bureaucrats are a prime example of the value of applying representative bureaucracy to day-to-day operations of government

Question 51

Theories-Street-level bureaucracies

Answer 51

Street level bureaucracy - Michael Lipsky, in his classic Street-Level Bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Service, refers to street-level bureaucrats as the large groups of bureaucrats who are typically low-level professional and semi-professional officials working at the “ground level.” Studies indicate that street-level bureaucrats have some discretion in policy implementation as well as considerable influence in policymaking.

In Frederickson, et al., street-level bureaucracy is linked to several theories including client responsiveness theory in which street-level bureaucrats see themselves as professionals providing a direct service and ordinarily do not see themselves as public officials or public servants. (Gruber 1987).

“They ‘work for their clients’ more than they ‘work for the mayor, the city council, the school board, or the county commission.’” (Frederickson, et al., p. 27)

Street-level bureaucrats are also linked to the political control of bureaucracy theory indicating they are faced with daunting social tasks and limited resources

The representative bureaucracy theory highlights that street-level bureaucrats have a policymaking role. “Lipsky’s central premise is that street-level bureaucrats – policemen, teachers, and the like – routinely make decisions that are not dictated by the mission of the organizations they work for, or the rules they are supposed to enforce…thus make policy as a result of their behavior