Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Question 1

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
**Simon, Herbert (1946)- The Proverbs of Administration

Answer 1

The Proverbs of Administration

*Critiques the accepted principles but does not suggest that there may be anything else besides the use of scientific study to study administration. Nor is there a suggestion that other concepts should be considered i.e. democracy or normative values

Question 2

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
**Simon, Herbert (1946)- The Proverbs of Administration

Answer 2

In this article, Simon does not explicitly critique the notion of a politics-administration dichotomy. He does however critique some of the principles (strategies) that previous PA scholars (particularly Luther Gulick) have borrowed from business management and has suggested will best achieve efficiency. Simon makes no mention of a separation of politics from administration, but does critique strategies which has been so heavily referenced when describing how administration should best be achieved in the public sector. In essence, this is not a critique of the dichotomy, but a critique of the tools that have been suggested will best achieve efficiency.

Question 3

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
**Simon, Herbert (1946)- The Proverbs of Administration

Answer 3

Four commonly referenced principles of administration are proposed to be proverbs (sayings that are contradictory or at odds with each other). While principles should be relatively simple, clear, unambiguous, and easily submitted to scientific testing. However, some commonly accepted principles (as suggested by Simon) are in fact proverbs that are at odds with one another and seemingly contradict. There are four commonly accepted principles that Simon stipulates are mutually incompatible:

Administrative efficiency is increased by a specialization of the task among the group.  

Administrative efficiency is increased by arranging the members of the group in a determinate hierarchy of authority.  

Administrative efficiency is increased by limiting the span of control at any point in the hierarchy to a small number.  

Administrative efficiency is increased by grouping the workers, for purposes of control, according to (a) purpose, (b) process, (c) clientele, or (d) place.

Question 4

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
**Simon, Herbert (1946)- The Proverbs of Administration

Answer 4

For example, unity of command and specialization are in conflict because at times individuals within an organization may require specialized knowledge from individuals outside of their area of specialization for decision-making purposes; This may prohibit an agency from making use of specialized knowedgde. Simon states that having increased expertise-by way of having additional specialists incorporated into the decision making fold- is not too great a price to pay because it increases expertise that can be added towards decisions.

Question 5

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
**Simon, Herbert (1946)- The Proverbs of Administration

Answer 5

The incompatibility of these principles raises the question of whether there can be a true construction of an administrative theory. A theory of administration details how an organization should be constructed and operated to accomplish its work efficiently. While Simon does not critique the intended outcome (reaching efficiency) of these principles, he does critique whether they are truly as valid as they are purported to be.

Question 6

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
**Simon, Herbert (1946)- The Proverbs of Administration

Answer 6

Simon states that a theory of administration cannot be predicated on proverbs that are unclear and seemingly incompatible and contradictory.

http://cstl-cla.semo.edu/walling/40508/simonbypierce.htm

Question 7

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Waldo-Simon Debate (1948)
Waldo (1948)

Answer 7

Waldo-Simon Debate (1948)

Waldo (1948)-PA should incorporate the value of democracy. There is something irrational about pursuing a value (efficiency) that we deem to be rational. Efficiency is irrational because the means that we go about attaining it in a democratic society (i.e. bureaucracy) is seemingly contrary to democracy itself. For instance, bureaucracy is a contradiction to democracy because it is marked by rules, procedures, constraints etc. Democracy is marked by freedom, liberty, shared power etc. Therefore, it is implausible that we can use bureaucracy as an instrument to uphold democracy. As a result, democracy should be studied first and foremost and independently of bureaucracy.

Question 8

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Waldo-Simon Debate (1948)
Simon (1948)

Answer 8

Simon (1948) states that there cannot be a science of PA predicated on values. PA can and should be studied scientifically through the application of rigorous methods of social sciences (hypothesis, theory, models etc). We should use a rational scientific approach. Simon is a logical positivist-believe in scientific knowledge. Does not claim that human are fully rational. We know that they are boundedly rational and we must find ways to assist them.

Question 9

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Waldo-Simon Debate (1948)

Answer 9

A similar but more important debate was occurred later. The central issue is whether public administrators can develop their practical theory only based upon facts and rationality. One the one hand, Simon (1946, 1952) believes that political actors should make the value decisions and administrators should focus on fact-finding and then develop their practical theories base upon a set of falsifiable logic. In addition, Simon (1946) also argues that due to human nature, individuals actually are “bounded rational”.In other words, they are likely to be limited by their time, values and knowledge and only seek a satisfied solution to problem. Thus, administrative sciences should find out these limitations and then offer solutions for these limitations.

Question 10

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Waldo-Simon Debate (1948)

Answer 10

However, Waldo (1952) first argues that there is no value-fact dichotomy. When administrators make their administrative decisions, they are actually making value decisions as well. In addition, Waldo (1955) also argues that the concept of rationality actually limit the understanding of human nature. Aside from rationality, the public is likely to make judgment or take actions based upon some social norms, beliefs and values. If administrators ignore the influence of these “irrational” factors, they are likely to ignore the real purpose of their administration actions (Dahl, 1949).

Question 11

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
**Dahl, Robert, A. (1947)-The Science of Public Administration: Three Problems

Answer 11

• Promotes the need for a study of PA to focus on human behavior in administration, normative values, and cultural settings as opposed to only scientific principles.
• This article could also be viewed as a human approach to administration (human behavior influence on administration) as well as organizations as systems approach (general/political environment/outside influence on administration).

Attempts to develop a science of administration predicated on natural science has resulted in the disregarding of factors such as normative rules, individual human psyche, and cultural impacts. Dahl suggests that three problems have been created with the intention of studying public administration similar to a science.

Question 12

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
**Dahl, Robert, A. (1947)-The Science of Public Administration: Three Problems

Answer 12

The first problem is that developing a science of administration has been misleading because it is impossible to exclude other pertinent normative values beyond efficiency. Dahl critiques Gulick’s contention of efficiency as the fundamental value particularly when democratic arrangements (such as citizen boards and small local) are used for administration. There is no clear rational provided by Gulick as to why efficiency should take precedence over democracy. While administration claims to be value-free, the field actually displays a preference for the particular value of efficiency (Denhardt, 2008). Hence, there is a conflict between efficiency and other normative values.

Question 13

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
**Dahl, Robert, A. (1947)-The Science of Public Administration: Three Problems

Answer 13

The second problem is that the science of administration has failed to incorporate the study of certain aspects of human behavior. Most problems of PA encompass human beings and as such a study of PA should address how humans behave and are expected to behave under particular circumstances. Dahl states that the study of ham has largely been excluded from the study of administration out of convenience. Man is unpredictable and any incorporation of him into a science of administration is seen as cumbersome because human behavior does not fit as neatly into some scientific package. Failure to incorporate a study of human behavior into any “science” of administration will leave the field incomplete. Therefore, it is patently false to refer to PA as already being a science. “We cannot achieve a science by creating in a mechanized administrative man a modern descendant of the eighteenth century’s rational man, whose only existence is in books on public administration and whose only activity is strict obedience to the universal laws of the science of administration” (Page 7).

Question 14

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
**Dahl, Robert, A. (1947)-The Science of Public Administration: Three Problems

Answer 14

The third problem is that scholars have ignored the relationship between public administration and its social setting. Assumptions are made that the science of administration is applicable in every general setting (universal). There is ignorance regarding the relationship of between the principles of public administration and its general settings (nation, political system etc.). Social settings and institutions differ from country to country, therefore it would be wrong to assume that a successful science of administration is equally as applicable in differing social, economic, and political environments. Particular nation-states are unique in their history, history, failures and influences. Difficulties are presented when drawing conclusion from institutions of any one country and comparing it to other nations while in order to develop general principles. Therefore, a science of administration should also be viewed as unique. In closing, comparative studies among nations should be carried out to discover common principles and generalities that can truly be posited as universal.
The so-called science of administrative is incomplete unless attempts are made address the three above-mentioned problems of incompatible values.

Question 15

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Kaufman, Herbert (1956)-Emerging Conflicts in the Doctrines of Public Administration

Answer 15

Kaufman, Herbert (1956)-Emerging Conflicts in the Doctrines of Public Administration

*Provides overview of the evolution of PA as well as what is thought to be some conflicts within the field of PA. The field faces an irresolvable problem in that it tries to maximize seemingly incompatible values (Rosenbloom, 1984).

Question 16

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Kaufman, Herbert (1956)-Emerging Conflicts in the Doctrines of Public Administration

Answer 16

The thesis of this paper proclaims that administrative institutions of the United States have been organized and operated in pursuit successively (in the listed order) of three incompatible values which include 1) representativeness, 2) neutral competence, and 3) executive leadership.

Representativeness emerged during the founding of the American republic as an opposition to monarchy rule. Elected legislative officials held leadership power while the President held less power and the office of governor was more symbolic and ceremonial. The legislature rules unchallenged but this led to the spoils system, pursuit of legislative personal interests, and lack of interest towards the interests of the governed. This led to the search for neutral competence in government officials.

Question 17

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Kaufman, Herbert (1956)-Emerging Conflicts in the Doctrines of Public Administration

Answer 17

There was an increase in the number of appointed bureaucrats in government. Neutral competence was viewed as a way to promote democracy and attaining efficiency by having the best and well-trained in agency leadership positions. The thesis of this paper proclaims that administrative institutions of the United States have been organized and operated in pursuit successively (in the listed order) of three incompatible values which include 1) representativeness, 2) neutral competence, and 3) executive leadership. Neutral competence saw the emergence of the politics administration dichotomy which had a core value of doing government work expertly according to objective standards as opposed to personal or political party loyalty. Neutral competence saw the emergence of the Civil Service Act of 1883. This took the power to hire government officials away from politicians and placing the power in the hands of experts who were now being hired to oversee administration. Experts also got the power to promote government workers on their merits and dismiss government workers. The Civil Service Commission erected a wall between bureaucracy and politicians.

Question 18

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Kaufman, Herbert (1956)-Emerging Conflicts in the Doctrines of Public Administration

Answer 18

There was an increase in the number of appointed bureaucrats in government. Neutral competence was viewed as a way to promote democracy and attaining efficiency by having the best and well-trained in agency leadership positions. The thesis of this paper proclaims that administrative institutions of the United States have been organized and operated in pursuit successively (in the listed order) of three incompatible values which include 1) representativeness, 2) neutral competence, and 3) executive leadership.The quest for executive leadership emerged with the increase in experts who went about their business without reference to each other or other organs of government. This resulted in a fragmentation of government. Agencies pursued contradictory policies and no one was seemingly steering government. Chief executives were needed to take charge of the growing machinery of government. Executives at all levels of government garnered more power in their ability to assess the budget, rationalize spending, and review and adjust their agency’s budget request.

Question 19

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Kaufman, Herbert (1956)-Emerging Conflicts in the Doctrines of Public Administration

Answer 19

They key is that this was all taking place while representativeness and neutral competence still held importance. At no point in the nation’s history and evolution was one of these primary values pursued while completely excluding one or both of the other values. However, as the field moves forward there will continuously be a conflict between the three values. For instance, policies enacted by the legislature (representativeness) are broad granting agencies (neutral competence) discretion in administration which in turn grant them power and allow them to influence legislative policy-making. This broad decision-making power by agencies ultimately reduces the amount of influence and control that the executive (Both President and Agency Executive) has over the self-directing groups within the agency. According to Kaufman (1969), the quest to insulate bureaucracies from partisan politics resulted in these agencies being less responsive to executive direction i.e., agencies become more independent. There is a constant struggle between the need to grow the bureaucracy and how it should be controlled (by legislature or by the executive).

Question 20

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHDOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Dimock, Marshall (1936)

Answer 20

Dimock, Marshall (1936)- Questioned the pursuit of efficiency and its mechanic-like as the preemptive goal of PA. Management is a more intuitive and compassionate whereas mechanic-like application is cold, calculating, and inhuman. PA is more than a lifeless pawn. The need for a more sensitive understanding of management in human terms is especially important in PA. Successful administration is warm and vibrant. For those in PA, the fulfillment of communal wants is the ultimate test of all their activities.

Question 21

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHODOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Dimock, Marshall (1936b)-Criteria and Objectives for Public Administration

Answer 21

Dimock, Marshall (1936b)-Criteria and Objectives for Public Administration

Contended that PA’s adoption of efficiency as a value was inhuman. The mechanical application of efficiency is “coldly calculating and inhuman” (Page 120). There is a need for a more sensitive understanding of management in human terms and particularly within PA. For those in government :the fulfillment of communal wants is the ultimate test of all their activities.” Public administration is “more than a lifeless pawn. It plans, it contrives, it philosophizes, it educates, it builds for the community as a whole” (Page 133). Efficiency may conflict with other criteria used to assess the work of public organizations such as justice and participation (democracy).

Question 22

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHODOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
White (1948b)

Answer 22

White (1948b)-Centralization in a democratic society can cause administrators in a decision-making power to act capriciously, certain matters are best handled at the local level, centralization will not permit citizens to gain experience in assuming their civic responsibility.

Question 23

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHODOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Henderson, L.J., Whitehead, T.N., Mayo, Elton ()-The Effects of Social Environment

Answer 23

Henderson, L.J., Whitehead, T.N., Mayo, Elton ()-The Effects of Social Environment

The Hawthorne Plant of Western Electric Company indicates that individual personalities and social relationships had an effect on routinized work. Increased output was the result of “the organization of human relations, rather than the organization of technics.” No study of human situations which fails to take account of the non-logical (non-technical) social routines can hope for practical success.”

Question 24

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHODOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Gulick, Luther (1933)-Politics, Administration, and the New Deal

Answer 24

Gulick, Luther (1933)-Politics, Administration, and the New Deal

Every action that the public employee takes is a seamless web of discretion and action. The level of discretion varies from agency to agency and discretion is exercised from the top of the agency to the bottom.

Question 25

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHODOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Appleby, P.H. (1949)-Policy and Administration

Answer 25

Appleby, P.H. (1949)-Policy and Administration

“Administrators are continually laying down laying down ules for the future, and administrators are continually determining what the law is, what it means in terms of action” (Page 7). Additionally, administrators also influence the law by making recommendations to the legislature and by using their own discretion. Thus, according to Appleby, “public administration is policy making” (Page 170). Appleby notes that administrator involvement in policy making is appropriate because in a democratic society because “there is always more of politics” (Page 27).

Question 26

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHODOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
CRITIQUES OF ORTHODOXY PERIOD
Weber (1946)

Answer 26

Weber (1946) stipulated that the while recognizing bureaucracy as the most efficient form of organization, and even indispensable for the modern state, Weber also saw it as a threat to individual freedoms, and the ongoing bureaucratization as leading to a “polar night of icy darkness”, in which increasing rationalization of human life traps individuals in the aforementioned “iron cage” of bureaucratic, rule-based, rational control. The rules and procedures of bureaucracy can limit individual freedoms and “renders the individual incapable of understanding his own activities in relation to the organization as a whole” (Page 38). In other words, the bureaucracy can stifle innovative thinking and compel the individual to only be predisposed with their immediate functions while giving little consideration to the bigger picture. The bureaucracy can snuff out human feelings and values. In other words, making humans de-sensitized to the ones they serve i.e. value-free administration.

Question 27

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHODOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
CRITIQUES OF ORTHODOXY PERIOD
Weber (1946)

Answer 27

Weber foresees a struggle between the bureaucracy and political leadership. He threatens that the skilled and technically-trained administrators may become their own elite class. This elite class can become a ruling class that dominates and does not look out for the common democratic interest. He likens this to Marxism where class divisions can result in the pursuit of material interests and the replacement of personal interests, replaced personal relationships with impersonality, and created conflict between those with property and the propertyless” (Page 41).

Question 28

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHODOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
CRITIQUES OF ORTHODOXY PERIOD
Weber (1946)

Answer 28

Since politicians are responsible for the greater social welfare and should “draw people toward an awareness of the common interest” (Page 41). Political leadership is thus needed to protect democracy and prevent the bureaucrats from develop and pursuing their own interests, shaping policy by way of their expertise, and undermining the rules of law. ‘Democracy requires the prevention of a closed status group of officials from taking power” (Page 43). Political leadership is needed to ensure that the bureaucrat does not engage in partisan politics. “Bureaucracy can only be controlled from the top…politicians are the indispensable counterweight to bureaucracy” (Page 43). Weber believes that the bureaucrat should carry out their duties in an impartial manner.

Question 29

Rebuttals of the Politics-Administration Dichotomy and the Principles or CRITIQUE/OUTSPOKENESS OF/AGAINST THE ORTHODOXY APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
CRITIQUES OF ORTHODOXY PERIOD
Kaufman (1956)

Answer 29

Kaufman (1956) article could be viewed as speaking out against the orthodoxy period’s values of representativeness, neutral competence, and executive authority in that they are mutually incompatible.

While not explicitly criticizing tenets of the orthodoxy period, McGregor (1957) does provide some characteristics (which can be viewed as negatives) of this period. For instance, he posits that in this view, employees are viewed as mechanic-like entities that are void of feeling and individualistic needs.