The self Flashcards
1
Q
Definition of personality
A
Distinctive & relatively stable pattern of behaviour, thoughts & emotions that characterize an individual
(used to tell people apart)
2
Q
Definition of character
A
Personal characteristics acquired during upbringing –> relates to moral & ethical behaviour
(more specific than personality)
3
Q
Definition of temperament
A
Hereditary & enduring aspects of personality
(e.g. cold/warm temperaments)
4
Q
Definition of personality trait
A
Stable qualities a person shows in most situations
(more specific than personality types)
5
Q
Definition of personality type
A
Psychological classification of individuals based on common traits that occur together consistently
6
Q
What are the four major perspective in viewing & explaining personality?
A
- Psychodynamic theories (associated w Sigmund Freud; unconscious)
- Behavioural & socio-cognitive theories (social aspects of personality)
- Humanistic theories (+ve aspects & human excellence)
- Trait theories (diff personalities across diff populations & humans)
7
Q
Whose work was psychodynamic theories derived from and who were the theorists?
A
Variety of theoretical models derived from the work of Freud
Theorists: Freud, Jung, Adler, Erikson
8
Q
What is behaviour (Psychodynamic theories)?
A
Product of psychological forces within the individual, often outside conscious awareness
9
Q
What are the 3 levels of awareness according to Freud?
A
- Conscious mind: things we are focusing on
- Preconscious (subconscious) mind: things we are not currently aware of but which we could focus on
- Unconscious mind: things we are unaware of (usually -ve)
10
Q
What are the 3 parts under Freud’s structure of personality?
A
- Id
- Ego
- Superego
11
Q
What is Id (Freud’s structure of personality)?
A
- Most primitive
-Exists at birth - Unconscious & unorganised
- operates in obedience to the pleasure principle (immediate gratification), irrespective of consequences
Controlled by Ego
Aka “wild side”
12
Q
What is Ego (Freud’s structure of personality)?
A
- Mostly conscious
- Rational & logical
- Develops in childhood
- Governed by reality principle = satisfies id w/o -ve consequences)
Aka “sensible side”
13
Q
What is Superego (Freud’s structure of personality)?
A
- Partly conscious
- Consists of conscience (pride/guilt) & ego ideal (moral behaviour standards)
- Begins in first 5 years of life & continues through adolescence
Aka “moral angel” –> through identification with parents & admired models of behaviour = represents parental & societal standards
14
Q
What is personality according to Freud’s Structure of Personality?
A
Interplay & conflict: b/w demands by id, restrictions by superego & direction by ego
BASICALLY:
- id wants immediate satisfaction of desires (e.g. eat whole cake)
- superego says no by making you feel bad (e.g. impose guilt/shame: “That’s unhealthy and irresponsible”)
- ego tries to mediate & find realistic solution (e.g., “Have a small slice to satisfy the craving without overindulging”)
15
Q
What does constant conflict (inner war) b/w id, ego & superego cause?
A
Generates anxiety which causes disordered behaviour
Ego tries to control anxiety (reduce/redirect) through use of ego defence mechanisms
16
Q
What are ego defence mechanisms?
A
Unconsciously distorting perception of reality to reduce stress & anxiety
(may later become aware of this through therapy/self reflection/critical thinking)
17
Q
What are the 5 stages in Freud’s personality development?
A
- Oral stage (first 18 months
- Anal stage (18 - 36 months)
- Phallic stage (3 - 6 years)
- Latency stage (6 years - puberty)
- Genital stage (puberty onwards)
18
Q
What happens when conflict & anxiety is not resolved properly at each stage of personality development (Freud’s personality development)?
A
Normal development may be interrupted & child may be stuck (fixation) at that stage
19
Q
slide 11
A
20
Q
What are neo-Freudians?
A
followers of Freud who accepted basic concepts of Freud’s theory but altered it in some way
- less emphasis on sexuality & more emphasis on social, cultural, interpersonal variables in shaping personality
21
Q
What is the oral stage in Freud’s personality development?
A
Infant achieves gratification through oral activities –> feeding, thumb sucking, babbling
22
Q
What is the anal stage in Freud’s personality development?
A
Child learns to respond to some demands of society –> bowel & bladder control
23
Q
What is the phallic stage Freud’s personality development?
A
Child learns to realize difference b/w males & females & becomes aware of sexuality
24
Q
What is the latency stage of Freud’s personality development?
A
Child continues their development but sexual urges relatively quiet
25
What is the genital stage of Freud's personality development?
Growing adolescent shakes off old dependencies & learns to deal maturely with the opposite sex
26
What was Carl Jung's theory?
Analytical Psychology theory
27
What is Jung's analytical psychology theory?
Personality comprised of conscious ego, personal & collective unconscious
28
What is personal unconscious (Jung's analytical psychology theory)?
Personal unconscious = Freud's unconscious
Basically, Jung's way of saying unconscious mind (Freud's theory) = things we are unaware of
29
What is collective unconscious (Jung's analytical psychology theory)?
Latent memory traces inherited from ancestors
- Archetypes: emotionally charged images & thought forms that have universal meaning (e.g. wise old man)
30
What was Alfred Adler's theory?
Individual Psychology theory
31
What is Adler's Individual psychology theory?
Seeking superiority to overcome inferiority complex is the driving force for personality
32
Who developed birth order theory and what is this theory?
Developed by Alfred Adler
- Diff birth orders = diff personality traits/characteristics
- Firstborn: feel inferior to younger children; overachievers
- Middle child: feel superior to older & younger children; vv competitive
- Younger child: feel inferior to older children = less freedom/responsibility
33
What was Karen Horney's theory?
Psychoanalytic Social theory
34
What is Horney's psychoanalytic social theory?
Stressed importance on:
- Social & cultural influences on personality development
- Social (esp. parent-child) r/s
- Neurosis: result from basic anxiety
35
What can cause neurosis (Horney's psychoanalytic social theory)?
Results from basic anxiety created
- Neurotic personalities due to less-secure upbringings
E.g. Discrimination, parental arguments, hostility at home, unkept promises, excissive admiration, injustice, etc
36
What was Erik Erickson's theory?
Psychosocial Development theory
37
What is the psychosocial development theory?
Emphasises impact of social r/s across one's lifespan
- 8 psychosocial stages of development
- Integrates personal, social & emotional development
38
Why was Freud & the Neo-Freudians a legacy (of psychoanalytic theory)?
Freud was first to suggest
- unified theory to understand & explain human behaviour = basis for all other personality theories
- personality develops through stages
- not always consciously aware of reasons for behaviour
- early life experiences influential to personality
39
What are some criticisms of psychodynamic theories?
1. Many concepts abt unconscious motivations impossible to confirm/disconfirm (bc unconscious lol)
2. Basing universal principles on experiences of few atypical patients (findings may X be generalised)
3. Theories of personality development based on retrospective accounts of adults
4. Diagnosis based on interpretation of dreams & free association (X supported)
5. Too much emphasis on sexual instincts
40
What is the behavioural perspective/theory?
Personality comprises learned responses & habits
- Stimulus-response association
- Learning via consequence
Well-learned responses = automatic (personality)
41
What is the social-cognitive perspective/theory?
Behaviour influenced by interaction b/w people's traits (incl. thinking) & their social context
Social: learning through conditioning/observing/imitating others
Cognitive: thoughts & interpretation of situation (mental representation)
Social-cognitive: thoughts/beliefs/behaviours constantly interacting w/being influenced by environment
42
What social-cognitive theories did Albert Bandura introduce?
- Reciprocal Determinism
- Self-Efficacy
43
What social-cognitive theory did Julian Rotter introduce?
Social Learning theory
44
What is Bandura's Reciprocal Determinism?
Behaviour is influenced by interaction of 3 factors:
1. Behaviour
2. Environment
3. Person
45
What is the behaviour factor in Bandura's Reciprocal Determinism?
- Frequency: how frequent you do smth
- Intensity: how intense you engage in the activity
- Skills: how much skills
- Practice: how much practice you need
= contributes to behaviour
46
What is the environment factor in Bandura's Reciprocal Determinism?
- Stimuli (Social/Physical)
- Reinforcement
- Contingencies
- Social norms
Reinforcement & contingencies = depends if actions are supported by people around you (environment = smth done by all your friends + facilities available to support the action)
47
What is the person factor in Bandura's Reciprocal Determinism?
- Beliefs & Attitudes
- Knowledge
- Expectations
Internal
48
What concept arises from Bandura's Reciprocal Determinism theory?
Self Efficacy
- Judgement of one's perception of how effective a behaviour will be in any particular circumstance
Basically, refers to a person's belief in their ability to succeed
49
What is Rotter's social learning theory?
The personality is a relatively stable set of potential responses to various situations based on Locus of Control (LoC) and Expectancy
50
What is Locus of Control (LoC)?
Beliefs about having or not having control for events that affect a person
- Internal LoC: events within one's control
- External LoC: events outside of one's control (others/fate/chance)
51
Internal LoC in healthcare
I control the consequences of my behaviour
- improve r/s
- inc. effort to learn
- do more exercise
- less smoking/drinking
- lower hypertension & heart attacks
52
External LoC in healthcare
The consequences of my behaviour are outside of my control
- more resigned to circumstances --> "as they are"
- lower efforts to improve health
- lower levels of psychological adjustment
53
What is expectancy (Social Learning Theory)?
Behaviour is determined by cognitive expectations (our expectations following the behaviour & value placed on outcome)
54
What are some contributions of social-cognitive theories?
- Highlights effects of situations on and by indivs (person-environment interaction)
- Suggests ppl can control their env.
- Expanded on behavioural approach by building on learning & cognitive research
- Theories supported by empirical research
55
What are some criticisms of social-cognitive theories?
- Too focused on situation & change --> assumes that changes in env automatically = changes in person
- Ignores role of indiv emotions & genetics
- Dilutes behavioural approach --> loosely organised; heavily focused on processes of learning
56
What are humanistic theories?
Emphasise personal growth, resilience, & achievement of human potential
57
What does humanistic theories focus on?
People are inherently good
- Highlight free will & choice
- Emphasise the inherent goodness of people (instead of mental & personality disorders)
- Focus on natural progress towards fully developing one's potential (striving for self-actualization
58
Why was humanistic theories developed?
Developed as a rxn to criticism of psychoanalysis & deterministic nature of behaviourism = ability to control feelings/behaviour/thoughts
59
What humanistic theory did Abraham Maslow introduce?
Hierarchy of Needs
(Father of humanistic movement)
60
What humanistic theory did Carl Rogers introduce?
Theory of Self
(Founder of person-centered therapy)
61
What are the level of needs in Maslow's Hierarchy of needs?
1. Physiological: survival stuff (e.g. breathing, food, sleep)
2. Safety: security & protection (e.g. stable income, good health, safe env.)
3. Love/Belonging: social connection, feeling accepted, intimacy
4. Esteem: self-respect, confidence, achievement
5. Self-actualisation: reach full potential & achieve personal goals (e.g. morality, creativity, problem solving, etc)
Most basic level needs to be fulfilled before moving to next level
62
What is self-actualisation?
A person's motivation to reach his/her full potential
Basic needs must be met before self-actualisation can be achieved
63
What is the Rogers' Theory of Self/Self-Actualization Theory?
Self-concept: perception of oneself influenced by interactions with significant people in one's life
Real self: perception of actual characteristics, traits, abilities (result of experiences
Ideal self: perception of whom one would like to be
64
Fully functioning person under Rogers' Theory of Self
Congruence b/w real & ideal selves
Ideal self + Real self match = harmony
Ideal self + Real self mismatch = anxiety
65
What is the self-actualization tendency?
Striving to fulfil one's innate capacities & capabilities (inborn tendency)
66
What is personality development guided by under Rogers' Theory of Self?
1. One's unique self-actualization tendency
2. Personal need for positive regard (warmth, affection, love from significant others):
- Unconditional positive regard (given unconditionally)
- Conditional positive regard (given only when behaviour meets conditions of others)
67
What is the result of others' responses on personality development (Rogers' Theory of Self)?
Unconditional positive regard = self-actualisation
Conditional positive regard = self-discrepancies
E.g. of conditional positive regard = I raise you means you must give me smth back --> take care of me when I'm old
68
Contributions of humanistic theories
- Influential to many fields (e.g. counselling, education, management, development & child psychology)
- Foundations for scientific positive psychology
- Brought resilience, empathy, altruism into spotlight
69
What are some criticisms of humanistic theories?
- Concepts vague, subjective & untestable (e.g. self-actualization --> how to test?)
- Too much emphasis on individualism
- Inherent goodness in people too optimistic & naive (e.g. serial killers? inherently good?)
70
What are trait theories focused on?
Focus on identifying, describing & measuring characteristics defining personality in order to predict behaviour
Trait: Stable & enduring predisposition to think, feel, behave in a certain way
71
What trait theory did Gordon Allport introduce?
All people have certain traits/dispositions that are the building blocks of personality
Developed a "dictionary of traits" to describe personality (List of 200 traits)
72
What trait theory did Raymond Cattell introduce?
Identified 16 traits ('essence of personality') using a statistical technique (factor analysis) on Allport's list
- Developed test to measure these traits --> 16 Personality Factors (16PF)
- Described 2 types of traits --> surface traits & source traits
73
What are surface traits and source traits (Cattell's trait theory)?
Surface traits: personality characteristics easily seen by other people (e.g. curiosity/dependability)
Source traits: basic underlying traits, forming the core of personality (e.g. introversion)
74
What did McCrae & Costa identify (trait theories)?
Identified five-factor personality traits --> aka Big Five personality dimensions (OCEAN)
75
What are the factors in McCrae & Costa's Big Five personality dimensions
Openness: curious, original, creative, etc
Conscientiousness: systematic, punctual, achievement oriented
Extraversion: outgoing, talkative, sociable
Agreeable: tolerant, sensitive, trusting
Neuroticism: anxious, irritable, moody
There are high score and low score characteristics --> just common sense it (e.g. conscientiousness: high--> creative/curious/artistic; low --> down-to-earth/uncreative/non-conforming)
76
What are the contributions of trait theories?
- Traits can be empirically measured
- Influenced development of personality tests
- Emphasise role of individual differences in personality
- Cross-cultural studies support Big Five (& Eysenck??)
77
What are the criticisms of trait theories?
- X take into account the env./situation
- Unreliable predictor of behaviour
- Statistical analyses may have influenced outcomes
- X explain how & why traits develop
- Traits X always enduring --> personality factors changeable
- Trait-situation interaction --> situation can affect traits
- Based on self-reports --> X always accurate
78
What are other influences of personality?
1. Heritability
2. Behavioural Genetics
3. Environment
4. Culture
79
Heritability & Personality
How much a trait is attributable to genetic differences among individuals within a group
80
What is behavioural genetics?
Understanding how both genetics & the environment contribute to behaviour
- NATURE VS NURTURE
81
What is behavioural genetics based on?
Based on heritability studies on twins & adopted individuals --> genetic influence for many traits
82
Twin studies
Identical twins more similar than fraternal twins (or unrelated ppl) on many traits & intelligence --> even if RAISED IN SEPARATE ENVIRONMENTS
Three Identical Strangers --> study on identical triplets separated at birth & raised in diff env.
83
Adoption studies of twins
Genetic influential to personality, in shared & non-shared environments
84
Heritability of most traits is about ______
50%
85
What environmental factors affect personality?
1. Situations & Social learning
2. Parental influence
3. Peers
86
How does Situations & Social Learning affect personality?
Social-cognitive theories of personality
- Learning experiences & resulting expectations & beliefs
- Reciprocal determinism (person, behaviour, env)
- Siblings differ due to non shared env.
87
How does parental influence affect personality?
NOT AS INFLUENTIAL
- shared env. less influential than non-shared (effect dec. over time)
- no single parental style consistently used over time
- little relation b/w what parents do & how children turn out
PEER GROUPS INFLUENCE MORE POWERFUL THAN PARENTAL
88
How does culture influence personality?
Differences b/w cultures that are more individual-based (individualist --> e.g. USA) & cultures that are more group-based (collectivist --> e..g Japan)
- Lack of appreciation of cultural influences on behaviour --> lead to misattributions to personality
- Can influence development of personality traits & behaviours but indivs may vary within same culture
89
How is personality assessed?
1. Interview
2. Projective tests
3. Behavioural assessments
4. Personality Inventories
90
Pros & Cons of Interviews for assessment of personality
Pro: Comprehensive
Cons: Respondent can lie, interviewer bias
91
Pros & Cons of projective tests for assessment of personality
Pros: elicit responses person unwilling/unable to give
Cons: subjective & dec. reliability & validity
92
Pros & Cons of Behavioural Assessments for assessment of personality
Pro: Allows examination of everyday circumstances
Cons: Observer bias, lack of env. control
93
What is an interview for assessment of personality?
Professional asks series of qns in an unstructured/semi-structured/structured manner
94
What are projective tests for assessment of personality?
Person presented with ambiguous stimuli & asked to describe these (e.g. inkblot tests)
95
What are behavioural assessments for assessment of personality?
Direct observations of person's behaviour in natural/clinical setting, incl. rating scales & frequency counts (of particular behaviours)
96
What are personality inventories for assessment of personality?
Paper-pencil/computerised tests comprising list of statements requiring specific responses
97
Pros & Cons of Personality Inventories for assessment of personality
Pros: Standardised, reliable, valid
Cons: Self-report issues, understanding qns.
98
What is development?
Progressive & continuous change in an organism from birth to death (lifespan)
99
What is developmental psychology?
Scientific study of physical, cognitive & (psycho)social changes of an individuals over their lifespan
Focuses on:
- NATURE VS NURTURE (genetics/env.)
- Continuity vs Stages (gradual/distinct stages)
- Stability vs Change (of traits)
100
What is the challenge of developmental psychology research?
Age of ppl. in a study should be an independent variable but ppl can't be randomly assigned to diff age groups
101
What is the solution to the challenge of developmental psychology research?
1. Cross-sectional design
2. Longitudinal design
3. Cross-sequential design
102
What is the cross-sectional design?
(solution to the challenge of developmental psychology research)
Diff participants of various ages are compared at one point in time to determine age-related differences
103
What is longitudinal design?
(solution to the challenge of developmental psychology research)
The same participants are studied at various ages to determine AGE-RELATED CHANGES
Study 1: 20 y/o participants
Study 2: same participants at 40 y/o
Study 3: same participants at 60y/o
104
What is cross-sequential design?
(solution to the challenge of developmental psychology research)
Different participants of various ages are compared at several points in time --> determine age-related differences & age-related changes
105
Nature vs Nurture
Nature: influence of inherited characteristics
Nurture: influence of env. (ext. factors)
Developmental psychologists believe human development best explained by interaction b/w nature & nurture
106
What is genetics?
Study of how hereditary characteristics (traits) in an individual are transmitted from parents to offspring
107
What is behaviour genetics?
Study of the relative power & limits of genetic & environmental influences on behaviour
108
What is epigenetics?
Emerging area of research that shows how env. influences the way genes work
109
What is a chromosome?
Strands of DNA & proteins in the cell nucleus
110
How many chromosomes do we have?
46 chromosomes (23 from each parent)
- most characteristics determined by 22 pairs
- last pair determines sex
111
What is DNA?
Organism's blueprint
112
What is a gene?
Segment of DNA that serves as basic unit of heredity
113
What are the 2 types of genes?
Dominant allele: gene that controls expression of traits (the trait that can is expressed/can be seen)
Recessive allele: gene influencing expression of trait only when paired w another recessive gene (recessive + recessive = expression)
114
What are some genetic disorders?
2 recessive genes
- PKU: disorder of brain, intellectual disabilities, mental
- Cystic fibrosis: difficulty breathing, lung stuff
- Sickle cell anaemia: adaptive for malaria prevention but uk blood bad
- Tay-Sachs Disease: intellectual & neuro issues, brain + spinal cord
115
What are some chromosome disorders?
(extra or missing pair)
- Down syndrome: additional chromosome (aka Trisomy 21)
- Klinefelter's syndrome: in males, additional X chromosome, fertility issues
- Turner's syndrome: in females, missing X chromosome, thyroid issues
116
Prenatal development stages
Conception: pregnant
Fertilisation: sperm + egg
Zygote: cell from fertilisation = divides until baby
Germinal stage
Embryonic stage
Fetal stage
117
What happens in the germinal stage?
2 weeks aft fertilisation
- Zygote moves towards uterus & attaches to uterus wall
- Placenta & umbilical cord develop
118
What happens in the embryonic stage?
Developing organism (embryo) 2-8 weeks aft fertilisation
- Critical periods: env. influences infant's development
- Teratogens: factors that can cause birth defect
119
What happens in the fetal stage?
Developing organism (fetus) 8 weeks aft fertilisation until birth
120
Common teratogens
i don't trust psych so look at them (slide 13 of the self part 2):
1. Cocaine !
2. Alcohol !
3. Nicotine !
4. Caffeine !
5. Radiation
6. High water temp (wtf i want to shower in hot water???)
7. Marijuana !!
8. Rubella
9. Mercury
10. Syphilis
121
What are some immediate body operations at birth?
Respiratory (obvi if not die???)
Circulatory
Temperature regulation
Followed by, digestive system
122
Physical development in infancy & childhood
5 reflexes: innate behaviours for survival
6 motor milestones: birth until ~2 y/o; nutrition, care & health are vital
Sensory development
123
What are the 5 reflexes in infancy?
Grasping
Startle
Rooting
Stepping
Sucking
124
What are the 6 motor milestones?
1. Raising head & chest
2. Rolling over
3. Sitting up with & w/o support
4. Crawling
5. Walking with support
6. Walking w/o support
125
Sensory development in infants
Touch, taste, smell --> highly developed
Hearing functional but X fully developed
Vision least developed
126
What is cognitive devleopment?
The development of mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering & communicating
127
What is Piaget's theory of cognitive development in children?
Cognitive development based on interaction with physical environment
128
What are the stages in Piaget's stages of cognitive development?
Birth to nearly 2 years: Sensorimotor
2 - 7 y/o: Preoperational
7 - 11 y/o: Concrete operational
12 y/o through adulthood: Formal operational
129
Sensorimotor stage
- Description
- Developmental phenomena
(Piaget's stages of cognitive development)
Experiencing world through sense & actions (looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, grasping)
- Object permanence (object still there even when hidden from view)
- Stranger anxiety
130
Preoperational stage
- Description
- Developmental phenomena
(Piaget's stages of cognitive development)
Representing things with words & images
Using intuitive rather than logical reasoning
- Pretend play
- Egocentrism (can only see from their POV)
131
Concrete operational
- Description
- Developmental phenomena
(Piaget's stages of cognitive development)
Thinking logically about concrete events
Grasping concrete analogies & performing arithmetical operations
- Mathematical transformations
- Conservation (certain properties X change --> e.g. vol. doesn't change when poured from tall cylindrical glass to shorter, fatter glass of same vol.)
132
Formal operational
- Description
- Developmental phenomena
(Piaget's stages of cognitive development)
Abstract reasoning
- Abstract logic
- Potential for mature moral reasoning
133
What is Lev Vygotsky's theory on cognitive development?
Cognitive development based on interaction with social environment
- Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
- Scaffolding
- Language
134
What is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?
(Vygotsky's theory on cognitive development)
Difference between what a child can do alone vs what a child can do with the help of a teacher
135
What is scaffolding?
(Vygotsky's theory on cognitive development)
Learning process where a highly skilled person gives more help at beginning of process, & begins to withdraw help as learner's skills improve
- Involves teaching materials just beyond student's current level --> assists their learning process
136
Language in Vygotsky's theory on cognitive development
Important factor of scaffolding, provides building blocks for thinking
137
What is language?
Set of rules for combining elements that are inherently meaningless into utterances that convey meaning
138
Stages of language development
1. Cooing (2 months): vowel-like sounds
2. Babbling (6 months): vowels + consonants
3. One-word speech (~1 year)
4. Telegraphic speech (~1.5 years): "mummy go"
5. Whole sentences (2 years)
139
What theory did Noam Chomsky introduce about language?
Human brain contains innate mental module containing a universal grammar --> enables young children to acquire language readily
140
Current thinking about language development
Acquisition of first language requires biological readiness & social experience
- Children not exposed to language during early years rarely speak normally/correctly (NOT EXPOSED BEFORE 4 y/o)
141
What are Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD)?
Range of neurodevelopmental disorders characterised by difficulties in communication & social interaction, & by rigidly fixated interests & repetitive behaviours
142
Prevalence of ASD
Approx 1 % in SG
About 1 in 44 children in USA
4x more common among boys than girls --> related to systemising & extreme male brain
143
What is the Extreme Male Brain?
Exaggerated form of systemising
- Drive to analyse & build systems based on input-operation-output rules
- Higher systemising may account for r/s b/w extreme male brain patterns & autism
144
What are the risk factors of ASD?
- Sibling w ASD
- May occur as a result of genetic predisposition, env., unknown factors --> certain genetic/chromosomal conditions (e.g. fragile X syndrome/tuberous sclerosis)
- Complications at birth
- Being born to older parents
Not linked to childhood immunisations
145
What is psychosocial development?
Development of personality, incl. acquisition of social attitudes & skills, from infancy to adulthood
146
What is temperament (psychosocial development)?
Characteristic style of behaviour established at birth (basic foundation of personality)
147
Types of temperament among children
- Easy: Playful & adaptable, responds +vely to new stimuli
- Difficult: non-adaptable, responds -vely to new stimuli/people
- Slow to warm-up: avoid & withdraw from new stimuli, needs time to adjust to change
(Energy level, emotional responses, demeanour, mood, response tempo, behaviours, inhibitions, willingness to explore)
148
What can temperament be affected by?
Parenting & environment
Related to attachment to some extent
149
What is attachment?
Intense reciprocal r/s & enduring emotional connection b/w infant & primary caregiver
- 4 attachment styles
150
What are the 4 attachment styles?
1. Secure
2. Avoidant
3. Insecure-Ambivalent
4. Disorganised-Disorientated
151
What is secure attachment style (child & caregiver behaviour)?
Child behaviour
- attached, willing to explore
- distressed when caregiver leaves
- happy when caregiver returns
- seeks comfort from caregiver when scared/sad
Caregiver behaviour
- reacts quickly & +vely to child's needs
- responsive to child's needs
Most beneficial for later life = independent, successful r/s, self-reliance, etc
152
What is avoidant attachment style (child & caregiver behaviour)?
Child behaviour
- unattached, explores w/o "touching base"
- not distressed when caregiver leaves
- does not acknowledge return of caregiver
- does not seek/make contact with caregiver
Caregiver behaviour
- unresponsive, uncaring
- dismissive
153
What is insecure-ambivalent attachment style (child & caregiver behaviour)?
Child behaviour
- insecurely-attached
- distressed when caregiver leaves
- not comforted by return of caregiver
Caregiver behaviour
- responds to child inconsistently
154
What is disorganized-disorientated attachment style (child & caregiver behaviour)?
Child behaviour
- insecurely-attached
- no attaching behaviours
- often appears dazed, confuse, apprehensive in presence of caregiver
Caregiver behaviour
- abusive/neglectful
- responds in frightening/frightened ways
155
What is self-concept?
Perception of self based on interactions with significant others
156
What theory did Erik Erikson introduce?
Psychosocial development occurs in a series of 8 stages
- First 4 stages relate to infancy
157
Difference between Erikson's theory and Piaget's theory
Erikson's theory
- Psychosocial development
- Entire life span
Piaget's theory
- Cognitive development
- Childhood to adolescence
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What are the developmental crisis in the first 4 stages of Erikson's psychosocial stages of development?
1. Infant: Trust vs Mistrust
2. Toddler: Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt
3. Preschool Age: Initiative vs Guilt
4. Elementary School Age: Industry vs Inferiority
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What is adolescence?
Period of life.
from age 12/13 to early 20s
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Physical development in adolescence
Sexual maturation period characterized by physical changes in the body (~4 years)
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Cognitive & Psyhosocial development in adolescence
Piaget's formal operations stage: capable of abstract thinking
Adolescent egocentric thinking: preoccupation w own thoughts that are perceived to be important for others
Erikson's 5th psychosocial stage: developmental crisis --> Identity vs Role confusion (decide who they are, what they believe, what they want to be as an adult)
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Moral development in adolescence
Process of determining right or wrong in a given situation based on social standards
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Who introduced the three stages of moral development across the lifespan?
Kohlberg
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Pre-conventional level of moral development (Kohlberg)
3-7 y/o
Obedience & punishment stage: Based on avoiding punishment, focus on consequence of actions rather than intentions
Individualism & exchange: behaviours based on self-interest, doing "right" action = reward
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Conventional level of moral development (Kohlberg)
8-13 y/o
Interpersonal r/s: 'good boy'/'good girl' attitude --> based on social expectations
Authority & social order: law & order as highest ideal, social obedience to maintain functional society
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Post-conventional adulthood level of moral development (Kohlberg)
Social contract: learns that others have diff values & laws are contingent on culture, may disobey laws that are inconsistent w personal values
Universal principles: develop internal moral principals & conscience; putting oneself into other ppl's shoes, begin to obey these principals above law
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What are the 3 stages of adulthood?
1. Early (emerging) adulthood: 20-35 y/o
2. Middle adulthood (middle age): 36-64 y/o
3. Late adulthood: 65 years and above
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Physical & cognitive development of early adulthood
Physical: Peak physical health
Cognitive: Peak physical health
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Physical & cognitive development of middle adulthood
Physical:
- dec. hearing, vision, height
- inc. weight
- menopause & andropause
- health issues based on genetic & lifestyle factors
Cognitive:
- inc. knowledge-base
- dec. processing/inc. rxn time
- inc. memory issues (often stressed related
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Physical & cognitive development of late adulthood
Physical:
- dec. physical strength
- further dec. hearing
Cognitive:
- further cognitive decline
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How to slow down cognitive & physical decline?
- Exercise
- Mediterranean style diet
- Cut back on alcohol
- Sleep 7-8 hours
- Engage in mental stimulation
- Maintain strong social ties
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Developmental crisis based on Erikson's psychosocial theory of Early Adulthood
Intimacy vs Isolation
- Face the task of finding a person who they can their their identity in an ongoing, close, personal r/s
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Developmental crisis based on Erikson's psychosocial theory of Middle Adulthood
Generativity vs Stagnation
- Find a way to be a creative, productive person who is nurturing next generation
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Developmental crisis based on Erikson's psychosocial theory of Late Adulthood
Ego Integrity vs Despair
- Involves coming to terms with end of life, reaching a sense of wholeness & acceptance of life as it has been
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What are aging theories?
Theories on age focus on either biological changes/external stressors
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What are the aging theories?
1. Cellular-clock theory
2. Wear-and-tear theory
3. Free-radical theory
4. Hormonal stress theory
5. Activity theory
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What is the cellular-clock theory?
Cells have a limit in the no. of times they can reproduce to repair damage
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What is the wear-and-tear theory?
Body's organs & cell tissues wear out w repeated use & abuse
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What is the free-radical theory?
Unstable O2 molecules cause damage to DNA & other cellular structures
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What is hormonal stress theory?
Aging lowers body's ability to cope with stress --> stress hormones stay around longer
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What is the activity theory?
Optimal aging assoc. with continued physical & mental activity & social interactions
- Use it or lose it
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What are the 5 stages of grief?
1. Denial
2. Anger
3. Depression
4. Bargaining
5. Acceptance
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Who introduced the 5 stages of grief?
Kubler-Ross
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What is the denial stage (5 stages of grief)?
- Protects the individual from intensity of loss
- Will slowly diminish as impact is acknowledged
- Avoidance, confusion, elation, shock, fear
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What is the anger stage (5 stages of grief)?
- Can result from feelings of abandonment
- Can lead to guilt after anger is acknowledged
- Frustration, Irritation, Anxiety
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What is the depression stage (5 stages of grief)?
- Symptoms such as sleep & appetite disturbances, loneliness, crying spells
- Unpleasant but essential for healing process
- Overwhelmed, helplessness, hostility, flight
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What is the bargaining stage (5 stages of grief)?
- Dwelling over what could have prevented the loss
- May hamper healing process if not resolved
- Struggling to find meaning, reaching out to others, telling one's story
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What is the acceptance stage (5 stages of grief)?
- Integrate range of emotions with life experiences
- Healing occurs
- Exploring options, new plan in place, moving on
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Biopsychosocial approach to healthy aging
Biological influences:
- no genes predisposing dementia/ other diseases
- appropriate nutrition
Psychological influences:
- optimistic outlook
- physically & mentally active life-style
Socio-cultural influences:
- support from family & friends
- meaningful activities
- cultural respect for aging
- safe living conditions
