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The self Flashcards

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1
Q

Definition of personality

A

Distinctive & relatively stable pattern of behaviour, thoughts & emotions that characterize an individual

(used to tell people apart)

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2
Q

Definition of character

A

Personal characteristics acquired during upbringing –> relates to moral & ethical behaviour

(more specific than personality)

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3
Q

Definition of temperament

A

Hereditary & enduring aspects of personality

(e.g. cold/warm temperaments)

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4
Q

Definition of personality trait

A

Stable qualities a person shows in most situations

(more specific than personality types)

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5
Q

Definition of personality type

A

Psychological classification of individuals based on common traits that occur together consistently

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6
Q

What are the four major perspective in viewing & explaining personality?

A
  1. Psychodynamic theories (associated w Sigmund Freud; unconscious)
  2. Behavioural & socio-cognitive theories (social aspects of personality)
  3. Humanistic theories (+ve aspects & human excellence)
  4. Trait theories (diff personalities across diff populations & humans)
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7
Q

Whose work was psychodynamic theories derived from and who were the theorists?

A

Variety of theoretical models derived from the work of Freud

Theorists: Freud, Jung, Adler, Erikson

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8
Q

What is behaviour (Psychodynamic theories)?

A

Product of psychological forces within the individual, often outside conscious awareness

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9
Q

What are the 3 levels of awareness according to Freud?

A
  1. Conscious mind: things we are focusing on
  2. Preconscious (subconscious) mind: things we are not currently aware of but which we could focus on
  3. Unconscious mind: things we are unaware of (usually -ve)
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10
Q

What are the 3 parts under Freud’s structure of personality?

A
  1. Id
  2. Ego
  3. Superego
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11
Q

What is Id (Freud’s structure of personality)?

A
  • Most primitive
    -Exists at birth
  • Unconscious & unorganised
  • operates in obedience to the pleasure principle (immediate gratification), irrespective of consequences

Controlled by Ego
Aka “wild side”

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12
Q

What is Ego (Freud’s structure of personality)?

A
  • Mostly conscious
  • Rational & logical
  • Develops in childhood
  • Governed by reality principle = satisfies id w/o -ve consequences)

Aka “sensible side”

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13
Q

What is Superego (Freud’s structure of personality)?

A
  • Partly conscious
  • Consists of conscience (pride/guilt) & ego ideal (moral behaviour standards)
  • Begins in first 5 years of life & continues through adolescence

Aka “moral angel” –> through identification with parents & admired models of behaviour = represents parental & societal standards

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14
Q

What is personality according to Freud’s Structure of Personality?

A

Interplay & conflict: b/w demands by id, restrictions by superego & direction by ego

BASICALLY:

  1. id wants immediate satisfaction of desires (e.g. eat whole cake)
  2. superego says no by making you feel bad (e.g. impose guilt/shame: “That’s unhealthy and irresponsible”)
  3. ego tries to mediate & find realistic solution (e.g., “Have a small slice to satisfy the craving without overindulging”)
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15
Q

What does constant conflict (inner war) b/w id, ego & superego cause?

A

Generates anxiety which causes disordered behaviour

Ego tries to control anxiety (reduce/redirect) through use of ego defence mechanisms

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16
Q

What are ego defence mechanisms?

A

Unconsciously distorting perception of reality to reduce stress & anxiety

(may later become aware of this through therapy/self reflection/critical thinking)

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17
Q

What are the 5 stages in Freud’s personality development?

A
  1. Oral stage (first 18 months
  2. Anal stage (18 - 36 months)
  3. Phallic stage (3 - 6 years)
  4. Latency stage (6 years - puberty)
  5. Genital stage (puberty onwards)
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18
Q

What happens when conflict & anxiety is not resolved properly at each stage of personality development (Freud’s personality development)?

A

Normal development may be interrupted & child may be stuck (fixation) at that stage

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19
Q

slide 11

A
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20
Q

What are neo-Freudians?

A

followers of Freud who accepted basic concepts of Freud’s theory but altered it in some way

  • less emphasis on sexuality & more emphasis on social, cultural, interpersonal variables in shaping personality
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21
Q

What is the oral stage in Freud’s personality development?

A

Infant achieves gratification through oral activities –> feeding, thumb sucking, babbling

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22
Q

What is the anal stage in Freud’s personality development?

A

Child learns to respond to some demands of society –> bowel & bladder control

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23
Q

What is the phallic stage Freud’s personality development?

A

Child learns to realize difference b/w males & females & becomes aware of sexuality

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24
Q

What is the latency stage of Freud’s personality development?

A

Child continues their development but sexual urges relatively quiet

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25
Q

What is the genital stage of Freud’s personality development?

A

Growing adolescent shakes off old dependencies & learns to deal maturely with the opposite sex

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26
Q

What was Carl Jung’s theory?

A

Analytical Psychology theory

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27
Q

What is Jung’s analytical psychology theory?

A

Personality comprised of conscious ego, personal & collective unconscious

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28
Q

What is personal unconscious (Jung’s analytical psychology theory)?

A

Personal unconscious = Freud’s unconscious

Basically, Jung’s way of saying unconscious mind (Freud’s theory) = things we are unaware of

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29
Q

What is collective unconscious (Jung’s analytical psychology theory)?

A

Latent memory traces inherited from ancestors

  • Archetypes: emotionally charged images & thought forms that have universal meaning (e.g. wise old man)
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30
Q

What was Alfred Adler’s theory?

A

Individual Psychology theory

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31
Q

What is Adler’s Individual psychology theory?

A

Seeking superiority to overcome inferiority complex is the driving force for personality

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32
Q

Who developed birth order theory and what is this theory?

A

Developed by Alfred Adler

  • Diff birth orders = diff personality traits/characteristics
  • Firstborn: feel inferior to younger children; overachievers
  • Middle child: feel superior to older & younger children; vv competitive
  • Younger child: feel inferior to older children = less freedom/responsibility
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33
Q

What was Karen Horney’s theory?

A

Psychoanalytic Social theory

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34
Q

What is Horney’s psychoanalytic social theory?

A

Stressed importance on:
- Social & cultural influences on personality development
- Social (esp. parent-child) r/s
- Neurosis: result from basic anxiety

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35
Q

What can cause neurosis (Horney’s psychoanalytic social theory)?

A

Results from basic anxiety created
- Neurotic personalities due to less-secure upbringings

E.g. Discrimination, parental arguments, hostility at home, unkept promises, excissive admiration, injustice, etc

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36
Q

What was Erik Erickson’s theory?

A

Psychosocial Development theory

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37
Q

What is the psychosocial development theory?

A

Emphasises impact of social r/s across one’s lifespan
- 8 psychosocial stages of development
- Integrates personal, social & emotional development

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38
Q

Why was Freud & the Neo-Freudians a legacy (of psychoanalytic theory)?

A

Freud was first to suggest
- unified theory to understand & explain human behaviour = basis for all other personality theories
- personality develops through stages
- not always consciously aware of reasons for behaviour
- early life experiences influential to personality

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39
Q

What are some criticisms of psychodynamic theories?

A
  1. Many concepts abt unconscious motivations impossible to confirm/disconfirm (bc unconscious lol)
  2. Basing universal principles on experiences of few atypical patients (findings may X be generalised)
  3. Theories of personality development based on retrospective accounts of adults
  4. Diagnosis based on interpretation of dreams & free association (X supported)
  5. Too much emphasis on sexual instincts
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40
Q

What is the behavioural perspective/theory?

A

Personality comprises learned responses & habits
- Stimulus-response association
- Learning via consequence

Well-learned responses = automatic (personality)

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41
Q

What is the social-cognitive perspective/theory?

A

Behaviour influenced by interaction b/w people’s traits (incl. thinking) & their social context

Social: learning through conditioning/observing/imitating others
Cognitive: thoughts & interpretation of situation (mental representation)
Social-cognitive: thoughts/beliefs/behaviours constantly interacting w/being influenced by environment

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42
Q

What social-cognitive theories did Albert Bandura introduce?

A
  • Reciprocal Determinism
  • Self-Efficacy
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43
Q

What social-cognitive theory did Julian Rotter introduce?

A

Social Learning theory

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44
Q

What is Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism?

A

Behaviour is influenced by interaction of 3 factors:
1. Behaviour
2. Environment
3. Person

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45
Q

What is the behaviour factor in Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism?

A
  • Frequency: how frequent you do smth
  • Intensity: how intense you engage in the activity
  • Skills: how much skills
  • Practice: how much practice you need

= contributes to behaviour

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46
Q

What is the environment factor in Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism?

A
  • Stimuli (Social/Physical)
  • Reinforcement
  • Contingencies
  • Social norms

Reinforcement & contingencies = depends if actions are supported by people around you (environment = smth done by all your friends + facilities available to support the action)

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47
Q

What is the person factor in Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism?

A
  • Beliefs & Attitudes
  • Knowledge
  • Expectations

Internal

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48
Q

What concept arises from Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism theory?

A

Self Efficacy
- Judgement of one’s perception of how effective a behaviour will be in any particular circumstance

Basically, refers to a person’s belief in their ability to succeed

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49
Q

What is Rotter’s social learning theory?

A

The personality is a relatively stable set of potential responses to various situations based on Locus of Control (LoC) and Expectancy

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50
Q

What is Locus of Control (LoC)?

A

Beliefs about having or not having control for events that affect a person

  • Internal LoC: events within one’s control
  • External LoC: events outside of one’s control (others/fate/chance)
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51
Q

Internal LoC in healthcare

A

I control the consequences of my behaviour
- improve r/s
- inc. effort to learn
- do more exercise
- less smoking/drinking
- lower hypertension & heart attacks

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52
Q

External LoC in healthcare

A

The consequences of my behaviour are outside of my control
- more resigned to circumstances –> “as they are”
- lower efforts to improve health
- lower levels of psychological adjustment

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53
Q

What is expectancy (Social Learning Theory)?

A

Behaviour is determined by cognitive expectations (our expectations following the behaviour & value placed on outcome)

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54
Q

What are some contributions of social-cognitive theories?

A
  • Highlights effects of situations on and by indivs (person-environment interaction)
  • Suggests ppl can control their env.
  • Expanded on behavioural approach by building on learning & cognitive research
  • Theories supported by empirical research
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55
Q

What are some criticisms of social-cognitive theories?

A
  • Too focused on situation & change –> assumes that changes in env automatically = changes in person
  • Ignores role of indiv emotions & genetics
  • Dilutes behavioural approach –> loosely organised; heavily focused on processes of learning
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56
Q

What are humanistic theories?

A

Emphasise personal growth, resilience, & achievement of human potential

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57
Q

What does humanistic theories focus on?

A

People are inherently good

  • Highlight free will & choice
  • Emphasise the inherent goodness of people (instead of mental & personality disorders)
  • Focus on natural progress towards fully developing one’s potential (striving for self-actualization
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58
Q

Why was humanistic theories developed?

A

Developed as a rxn to criticism of psychoanalysis & deterministic nature of behaviourism = ability to control feelings/behaviour/thoughts

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59
Q

What humanistic theory did Abraham Maslow introduce?

A

Hierarchy of Needs
(Father of humanistic movement)

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60
Q

What humanistic theory did Carl Rogers introduce?

A

Theory of Self
(Founder of person-centered therapy)

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61
Q

What are the level of needs in Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs?

A
  1. Physiological: survival stuff (e.g. breathing, food, sleep)
  2. Safety: security & protection (e.g. stable income, good health, safe env.)
  3. Love/Belonging: social connection, feeling accepted, intimacy
  4. Esteem: self-respect, confidence, achievement
  5. Self-actualisation: reach full potential & achieve personal goals (e.g. morality, creativity, problem solving, etc)

Most basic level needs to be fulfilled before moving to next level

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62
Q

What is self-actualisation?

A

A person’s motivation to reach his/her full potential

Basic needs must be met before self-actualisation can be achieved

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63
Q

What is the Rogers’ Theory of Self/Self-Actualization Theory?

A

Self-concept: perception of oneself influenced by interactions with significant people in one’s life

Real self: perception of actual characteristics, traits, abilities (result of experiences

Ideal self: perception of whom one would like to be

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64
Q

Fully functioning person under Rogers’ Theory of Self

A

Congruence b/w real & ideal selves

Ideal self + Real self match = harmony

Ideal self + Real self mismatch = anxiety

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65
Q

What is the self-actualization tendency?

A

Striving to fulfil one’s innate capacities & capabilities (inborn tendency)

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66
Q

What is personality development guided by under Rogers’ Theory of Self?

A
  1. One’s unique self-actualization tendency
  2. Personal need for positive regard (warmth, affection, love from significant others):
    - Unconditional positive regard (given unconditionally)
    - Conditional positive regard (given only when behaviour meets conditions of others)
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67
Q

What is the result of others’ responses on personality development (Rogers’ Theory of Self)?

A

Unconditional positive regard = self-actualisation

Conditional positive regard = self-discrepancies

E.g. of conditional positive regard = I raise you means you must give me smth back –> take care of me when I’m old

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68
Q

Contributions of humanistic theories

A
  • Influential to many fields (e.g. counselling, education, management, development & child psychology)
  • Foundations for scientific positive psychology
  • Brought resilience, empathy, altruism into spotlight
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69
Q

What are some criticisms of humanistic theories?

A
  • Concepts vague, subjective & untestable (e.g. self-actualization –> how to test?)
  • Too much emphasis on individualism
  • Inherent goodness in people too optimistic & naive (e.g. serial killers? inherently good?)
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70
Q

What are trait theories focused on?

A

Focus on identifying, describing & measuring characteristics defining personality in order to predict behaviour

Trait: Stable & enduring predisposition to think, feel, behave in a certain way

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71
Q

What trait theory did Gordon Allport introduce?

A

All people have certain traits/dispositions that are the building blocks of personality

Developed a “dictionary of traits” to describe personality (List of 200 traits)

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72
Q

What trait theory did Raymond Cattell introduce?

A

Identified 16 traits (‘essence of personality’) using a statistical technique (factor analysis) on Allport’s list

  • Developed test to measure these traits –> 16 Personality Factors (16PF)
  • Described 2 types of traits –> surface traits & source traits
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73
Q

What are surface traits and source traits (Cattell’s trait theory)?

A

Surface traits: personality characteristics easily seen by other people (e.g. curiosity/dependability)

Source traits: basic underlying traits, forming the core of personality (e.g. introversion)

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74
Q

What did McCrae & Costa identify (trait theories)?

A

Identified five-factor personality traits –> aka Big Five personality dimensions (OCEAN)

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75
Q

What are the factors in McCrae & Costa’s Big Five personality dimensions

A

Openness: curious, original, creative, etc

Conscientiousness: systematic, punctual, achievement oriented

Extraversion: outgoing, talkative, sociable

Agreeable: tolerant, sensitive, trusting

Neuroticism: anxious, irritable, moody

There are high score and low score characteristics –> just common sense it (e.g. conscientiousness: high–> creative/curious/artistic; low –> down-to-earth/uncreative/non-conforming)

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76
Q

What are the contributions of trait theories?

A
  • Traits can be empirically measured
  • Influenced development of personality tests
  • Emphasise role of individual differences in personality
  • Cross-cultural studies support Big Five (& Eysenck??)
77
Q

What are the criticisms of trait theories?

A
  • X take into account the env./situation
  • Unreliable predictor of behaviour
  • Statistical analyses may have influenced outcomes
  • X explain how & why traits develop
  • Traits X always enduring –> personality factors changeable
  • Trait-situation interaction –> situation can affect traits
  • Based on self-reports –> X always accurate
78
Q

What are other influences of personality?

A
  1. Heritability
  2. Behavioural Genetics
  3. Environment
  4. Culture
79
Q

Heritability & Personality

A

How much a trait is attributable to genetic differences among individuals within a group

80
Q

What is behavioural genetics?

A

Understanding how both genetics & the environment contribute to behaviour

  • NATURE VS NURTURE
81
Q

What is behavioural genetics based on?

A

Based on heritability studies on twins & adopted individuals –> genetic influence for many traits

82
Q

Twin studies

A

Identical twins more similar than fraternal twins (or unrelated ppl) on many traits & intelligence –> even if RAISED IN SEPARATE ENVIRONMENTS

Three Identical Strangers –> study on identical triplets separated at birth & raised in diff env.

83
Q

Adoption studies of twins

A

Genetic influential to personality, in shared & non-shared environments

84
Q

Heritability of most traits is about ______

A

50%

85
Q

What environmental factors affect personality?

A
  1. Situations & Social learning
  2. Parental influence
  3. Peers
86
Q

How does Situations & Social Learning affect personality?

A

Social-cognitive theories of personality
- Learning experiences & resulting expectations & beliefs
- Reciprocal determinism (person, behaviour, env)
- Siblings differ due to non shared env.

87
Q

How does parental influence affect personality?

A

NOT AS INFLUENTIAL
- shared env. less influential than non-shared (effect dec. over time)
- no single parental style consistently used over time
- little relation b/w what parents do & how children turn out

PEER GROUPS INFLUENCE MORE POWERFUL THAN PARENTAL

88
Q

How does culture influence personality?

A

Differences b/w cultures that are more individual-based (individualist –> e.g. USA) & cultures that are more group-based (collectivist –> e..g Japan)
- Lack of appreciation of cultural influences on behaviour –> lead to misattributions to personality
- Can influence development of personality traits & behaviours but indivs may vary within same culture

89
Q

How is personality assessed?

A
  1. Interview
  2. Projective tests
  3. Behavioural assessments
  4. Personality Inventories
90
Q

Pros & Cons of Interviews for assessment of personality

A

Pro: Comprehensive
Cons: Respondent can lie, interviewer bias

91
Q

Pros & Cons of projective tests for assessment of personality

A

Pros: elicit responses person unwilling/unable to give
Cons: subjective & dec. reliability & validity

92
Q

Pros & Cons of Behavioural Assessments for assessment of personality

A

Pro: Allows examination of everyday circumstances
Cons: Observer bias, lack of env. control

93
Q

What is an interview for assessment of personality?

A

Professional asks series of qns in an unstructured/semi-structured/structured manner

94
Q

What are projective tests for assessment of personality?

A

Person presented with ambiguous stimuli & asked to describe these (e.g. inkblot tests)

95
Q

What are behavioural assessments for assessment of personality?

A

Direct observations of person’s behaviour in natural/clinical setting, incl. rating scales & frequency counts (of particular behaviours)

96
Q

What are personality inventories for assessment of personality?

A

Paper-pencil/computerised tests comprising list of statements requiring specific responses

97
Q

Pros & Cons of Personality Inventories for assessment of personality

A

Pros: Standardised, reliable, valid
Cons: Self-report issues, understanding qns.

98
Q

What is development?

A

Progressive & continuous change in an organism from birth to death (lifespan)

99
Q

What is developmental psychology?

A

Scientific study of physical, cognitive & (psycho)social changes of an individuals over their lifespan

Focuses on:
- NATURE VS NURTURE (genetics/env.)
- Continuity vs Stages (gradual/distinct stages)
- Stability vs Change (of traits)

100
Q

What is the challenge of developmental psychology research?

A

Age of ppl. in a study should be an independent variable but ppl can’t be randomly assigned to diff age groups

101
Q

What is the solution to the challenge of developmental psychology research?

A
  1. Cross-sectional design
  2. Longitudinal design
  3. Cross-sequential design
102
Q

What is the cross-sectional design?

(solution to the challenge of developmental psychology research)

A

Diff participants of various ages are compared at one point in time to determine age-related differences

103
Q

What is longitudinal design?

(solution to the challenge of developmental psychology research)

A

The same participants are studied at various ages to determine AGE-RELATED CHANGES

Study 1: 20 y/o participants
Study 2: same participants at 40 y/o
Study 3: same participants at 60y/o

104
Q

What is cross-sequential design?

(solution to the challenge of developmental psychology research)

A

Different participants of various ages are compared at several points in time –> determine age-related differences & age-related changes

105
Q

Nature vs Nurture

A

Nature: influence of inherited characteristics
Nurture: influence of env. (ext. factors)

Developmental psychologists believe human development best explained by interaction b/w nature & nurture

106
Q

What is genetics?

A

Study of how hereditary characteristics (traits) in an individual are transmitted from parents to offspring

107
Q

What is behaviour genetics?

A

Study of the relative power & limits of genetic & environmental influences on behaviour

108
Q

What is epigenetics?

A

Emerging area of research that shows how env. influences the way genes work

109
Q

What is a chromosome?

A

Strands of DNA & proteins in the cell nucleus

110
Q

How many chromosomes do we have?

A

46 chromosomes (23 from each parent)
- most characteristics determined by 22 pairs
- last pair determines sex

111
Q

What is DNA?

A

Organism’s blueprint

112
Q

What is a gene?

A

Segment of DNA that serves as basic unit of heredity

113
Q

What are the 2 types of genes?

A

Dominant allele: gene that controls expression of traits (the trait that can is expressed/can be seen)

Recessive allele: gene influencing expression of trait only when paired w another recessive gene (recessive + recessive = expression)

114
Q

What are some genetic disorders?

A

2 recessive genes
- PKU: disorder of brain, intellectual disabilities, mental
- Cystic fibrosis: difficulty breathing, lung stuff
- Sickle cell anaemia: adaptive for malaria prevention but uk blood bad
- Tay-Sachs Disease: intellectual & neuro issues, brain + spinal cord

115
Q

What are some chromosome disorders?

A

(extra or missing pair)
- Down syndrome: additional chromosome (aka Trisomy 21)
- Klinefelter’s syndrome: in males, additional X chromosome, fertility issues
- Turner’s syndrome: in females, missing X chromosome, thyroid issues

116
Q

Prenatal development stages

A

Conception: pregnant
Fertilisation: sperm + egg
Zygote: cell from fertilisation = divides until baby

Germinal stage
Embryonic stage
Fetal stage

117
Q

What happens in the germinal stage?

A

2 weeks aft fertilisation
- Zygote moves towards uterus & attaches to uterus wall
- Placenta & umbilical cord develop

118
Q

What happens in the embryonic stage?

A

Developing organism (embryo) 2-8 weeks aft fertilisation
- Critical periods: env. influences infant’s development
- Teratogens: factors that can cause birth defect

119
Q

What happens in the fetal stage?

A

Developing organism (fetus) 8 weeks aft fertilisation until birth

120
Q

Common teratogens

A

i don’t trust psych so look at them (slide 13 of the self part 2):

  1. Cocaine !
  2. Alcohol !
  3. Nicotine !
  4. Caffeine !
  5. Radiation
  6. High water temp (wtf i want to shower in hot water???)
  7. Marijuana !!
  8. Rubella
  9. Mercury
  10. Syphilis
121
Q

What are some immediate body operations at birth?

A

Respiratory (obvi if not die???)
Circulatory
Temperature regulation

Followed by, digestive system

122
Q

Physical development in infancy & childhood

A

5 reflexes: innate behaviours for survival
6 motor milestones: birth until ~2 y/o; nutrition, care & health are vital
Sensory development

123
Q

What are the 5 reflexes in infancy?

A

Grasping
Startle
Rooting
Stepping
Sucking

124
Q

What are the 6 motor milestones?

A
  1. Raising head & chest
  2. Rolling over
  3. Sitting up with & w/o support
  4. Crawling
  5. Walking with support
  6. Walking w/o support
125
Q

Sensory development in infants

A

Touch, taste, smell –> highly developed
Hearing functional but X fully developed
Vision least developed

126
Q

What is cognitive devleopment?

A

The development of mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering & communicating

127
Q

What is Piaget’s theory of cognitive development in children?

A

Cognitive development based on interaction with physical environment

128
Q

What are the stages in Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?

A

Birth to nearly 2 years: Sensorimotor

2 - 7 y/o: Preoperational

7 - 11 y/o: Concrete operational

12 y/o through adulthood: Formal operational

129
Q

Sensorimotor stage
- Description
- Developmental phenomena

(Piaget’s stages of cognitive development)

A

Experiencing world through sense & actions (looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, grasping)

  • Object permanence (object still there even when hidden from view)
  • Stranger anxiety
130
Q

Preoperational stage
- Description
- Developmental phenomena

(Piaget’s stages of cognitive development)

A

Representing things with words & images
Using intuitive rather than logical reasoning

  • Pretend play
  • Egocentrism (can only see from their POV)
131
Q

Concrete operational
- Description
- Developmental phenomena

(Piaget’s stages of cognitive development)

A

Thinking logically about concrete events
Grasping concrete analogies & performing arithmetical operations

  • Mathematical transformations
  • Conservation (certain properties X change –> e.g. vol. doesn’t change when poured from tall cylindrical glass to shorter, fatter glass of same vol.)
132
Q

Formal operational
- Description
- Developmental phenomena

(Piaget’s stages of cognitive development)

A

Abstract reasoning

  • Abstract logic
  • Potential for mature moral reasoning
133
Q

What is Lev Vygotsky’s theory on cognitive development?

A

Cognitive development based on interaction with social environment
- Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
- Scaffolding
- Language

134
Q

What is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?

(Vygotsky’s theory on cognitive development)

A

Difference between what a child can do alone vs what a child can do with the help of a teacher

135
Q

What is scaffolding?

(Vygotsky’s theory on cognitive development)

A

Learning process where a highly skilled person gives more help at beginning of process, & begins to withdraw help as learner’s skills improve

  • Involves teaching materials just beyond student’s current level –> assists their learning process
136
Q

Language in Vygotsky’s theory on cognitive development

A

Important factor of scaffolding, provides building blocks for thinking

137
Q

What is language?

A

Set of rules for combining elements that are inherently meaningless into utterances that convey meaning

138
Q

Stages of language development

A
  1. Cooing (2 months): vowel-like sounds
  2. Babbling (6 months): vowels + consonants
  3. One-word speech (~1 year)
  4. Telegraphic speech (~1.5 years): “mummy go”
  5. Whole sentences (2 years)
139
Q

What theory did Noam Chomsky introduce about language?

A

Human brain contains innate mental module containing a universal grammar –> enables young children to acquire language readily

140
Q

Current thinking about language development

A

Acquisition of first language requires biological readiness & social experience
- Children not exposed to language during early years rarely speak normally/correctly (NOT EXPOSED BEFORE 4 y/o)

141
Q

What are Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD)?

A

Range of neurodevelopmental disorders characterised by difficulties in communication & social interaction, & by rigidly fixated interests & repetitive behaviours

142
Q

Prevalence of ASD

A

Approx 1 % in SG
About 1 in 44 children in USA

4x more common among boys than girls –> related to systemising & extreme male brain

143
Q

What is the Extreme Male Brain?

A

Exaggerated form of systemising
- Drive to analyse & build systems based on input-operation-output rules
- Higher systemising may account for r/s b/w extreme male brain patterns & autism

144
Q

What are the risk factors of ASD?

A
  • Sibling w ASD
  • May occur as a result of genetic predisposition, env., unknown factors –> certain genetic/chromosomal conditions (e.g. fragile X syndrome/tuberous sclerosis)
  • Complications at birth
  • Being born to older parents

Not linked to childhood immunisations

145
Q

What is psychosocial development?

A

Development of personality, incl. acquisition of social attitudes & skills, from infancy to adulthood

146
Q

What is temperament (psychosocial development)?

A

Characteristic style of behaviour established at birth (basic foundation of personality)

147
Q

Types of temperament among children

A
  • Easy: Playful & adaptable, responds +vely to new stimuli
  • Difficult: non-adaptable, responds -vely to new stimuli/people
  • Slow to warm-up: avoid & withdraw from new stimuli, needs time to adjust to change

(Energy level, emotional responses, demeanour, mood, response tempo, behaviours, inhibitions, willingness to explore)

148
Q

What can temperament be affected by?

A

Parenting & environment
Related to attachment to some extent

149
Q

What is attachment?

A

Intense reciprocal r/s & enduring emotional connection b/w infant & primary caregiver
- 4 attachment styles

150
Q

What are the 4 attachment styles?

A
  1. Secure
  2. Avoidant
  3. Insecure-Ambivalent
  4. Disorganised-Disorientated
151
Q

What is secure attachment style (child & caregiver behaviour)?

A

Child behaviour
- attached, willing to explore
- distressed when caregiver leaves
- happy when caregiver returns
- seeks comfort from caregiver when scared/sad

Caregiver behaviour
- reacts quickly & +vely to child’s needs
- responsive to child’s needs

Most beneficial for later life = independent, successful r/s, self-reliance, etc

152
Q

What is avoidant attachment style (child & caregiver behaviour)?

A

Child behaviour
- unattached, explores w/o “touching base”
- not distressed when caregiver leaves
- does not acknowledge return of caregiver
- does not seek/make contact with caregiver

Caregiver behaviour
- unresponsive, uncaring
- dismissive

153
Q

What is insecure-ambivalent attachment style (child & caregiver behaviour)?

A

Child behaviour
- insecurely-attached
- distressed when caregiver leaves
- not comforted by return of caregiver

Caregiver behaviour
- responds to child inconsistently

154
Q

What is disorganized-disorientated attachment style (child & caregiver behaviour)?

A

Child behaviour
- insecurely-attached
- no attaching behaviours
- often appears dazed, confuse, apprehensive in presence of caregiver

Caregiver behaviour
- abusive/neglectful
- responds in frightening/frightened ways

155
Q

What is self-concept?

A

Perception of self based on interactions with significant others

156
Q

What theory did Erik Erikson introduce?

A

Psychosocial development occurs in a series of 8 stages
- First 4 stages relate to infancy

157
Q

Difference between Erikson’s theory and Piaget’s theory

A

Erikson’s theory
- Psychosocial development
- Entire life span

Piaget’s theory
- Cognitive development
- Childhood to adolescence

158
Q

What are the developmental crisis in the first 4 stages of Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development?

A
  1. Infant: Trust vs Mistrust
  2. Toddler: Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt
  3. Preschool Age: Initiative vs Guilt
  4. Elementary School Age: Industry vs Inferiority
159
Q

What is adolescence?

A

Period of life.
from age 12/13 to early 20s

160
Q

Physical development in adolescence

A

Sexual maturation period characterized by physical changes in the body (~4 years)

161
Q

Cognitive & Psyhosocial development in adolescence

A

Piaget’s formal operations stage: capable of abstract thinking

Adolescent egocentric thinking: preoccupation w own thoughts that are perceived to be important for others

Erikson’s 5th psychosocial stage: developmental crisis –> Identity vs Role confusion (decide who they are, what they believe, what they want to be as an adult)

162
Q

Moral development in adolescence

A

Process of determining right or wrong in a given situation based on social standards

163
Q

Who introduced the three stages of moral development across the lifespan?

A

Kohlberg

164
Q

Pre-conventional level of moral development (Kohlberg)

A

3-7 y/o

Obedience & punishment stage: Based on avoiding punishment, focus on consequence of actions rather than intentions

Individualism & exchange: behaviours based on self-interest, doing “right” action = reward

165
Q

Conventional level of moral development (Kohlberg)

A

8-13 y/o

Interpersonal r/s: ‘good boy’/’good girl’ attitude –> based on social expectations

Authority & social order: law & order as highest ideal, social obedience to maintain functional society

166
Q

Post-conventional adulthood level of moral development (Kohlberg)

A

Social contract: learns that others have diff values & laws are contingent on culture, may disobey laws that are inconsistent w personal values

Universal principles: develop internal moral principals & conscience; putting oneself into other ppl’s shoes, begin to obey these principals above law

167
Q

What are the 3 stages of adulthood?

A
  1. Early (emerging) adulthood: 20-35 y/o
  2. Middle adulthood (middle age): 36-64 y/o
  3. Late adulthood: 65 years and above
168
Q

Physical & cognitive development of early adulthood

A

Physical: Peak physical health

Cognitive: Peak physical health

169
Q

Physical & cognitive development of middle adulthood

A

Physical:
- dec. hearing, vision, height
- inc. weight
- menopause & andropause
- health issues based on genetic & lifestyle factors

Cognitive:
- inc. knowledge-base
- dec. processing/inc. rxn time
- inc. memory issues (often stressed related

170
Q

Physical & cognitive development of late adulthood

A

Physical:
- dec. physical strength
- further dec. hearing

Cognitive:
- further cognitive decline

171
Q

How to slow down cognitive & physical decline?

A
  • Exercise
  • Mediterranean style diet
  • Cut back on alcohol
  • Sleep 7-8 hours
  • Engage in mental stimulation
  • Maintain strong social ties
172
Q

Developmental crisis based on Erikson’s psychosocial theory of Early Adulthood

A

Intimacy vs Isolation

  • Face the task of finding a person who they can their their identity in an ongoing, close, personal r/s
173
Q

Developmental crisis based on Erikson’s psychosocial theory of Middle Adulthood

A

Generativity vs Stagnation

  • Find a way to be a creative, productive person who is nurturing next generation
174
Q

Developmental crisis based on Erikson’s psychosocial theory of Late Adulthood

A

Ego Integrity vs Despair

  • Involves coming to terms with end of life, reaching a sense of wholeness & acceptance of life as it has been
175
Q

What are aging theories?

A

Theories on age focus on either biological changes/external stressors

176
Q

What are the aging theories?

A
  1. Cellular-clock theory
  2. Wear-and-tear theory
  3. Free-radical theory
  4. Hormonal stress theory
  5. Activity theory
177
Q

What is the cellular-clock theory?

A

Cells have a limit in the no. of times they can reproduce to repair damage

178
Q

What is the wear-and-tear theory?

A

Body’s organs & cell tissues wear out w repeated use & abuse

179
Q

What is the free-radical theory?

A

Unstable O2 molecules cause damage to DNA & other cellular structures

180
Q

What is hormonal stress theory?

A

Aging lowers body’s ability to cope with stress –> stress hormones stay around longer

181
Q

What is the activity theory?

A

Optimal aging assoc. with continued physical & mental activity & social interactions

  • Use it or lose it
182
Q

What are the 5 stages of grief?

A
  1. Denial
  2. Anger
  3. Depression
  4. Bargaining
  5. Acceptance
183
Q

Who introduced the 5 stages of grief?

A

Kubler-Ross

184
Q

What is the denial stage (5 stages of grief)?

A
  • Protects the individual from intensity of loss
  • Will slowly diminish as impact is acknowledged
  • Avoidance, confusion, elation, shock, fear
185
Q

What is the anger stage (5 stages of grief)?

A
  • Can result from feelings of abandonment
  • Can lead to guilt after anger is acknowledged
  • Frustration, Irritation, Anxiety
186
Q

What is the depression stage (5 stages of grief)?

A
  • Symptoms such as sleep & appetite disturbances, loneliness, crying spells
  • Unpleasant but essential for healing process
  • Overwhelmed, helplessness, hostility, flight
187
Q

What is the bargaining stage (5 stages of grief)?

A
  • Dwelling over what could have prevented the loss
  • May hamper healing process if not resolved
  • Struggling to find meaning, reaching out to others, telling one’s story
188
Q

What is the acceptance stage (5 stages of grief)?

A
  • Integrate range of emotions with life experiences
  • Healing occurs
  • Exploring options, new plan in place, moving on
189
Q

Biopsychosocial approach to healthy aging

A

Biological influences:
- no genes predisposing dementia/ other diseases
- appropriate nutrition

Psychological influences:
- optimistic outlook
- physically & mentally active life-style

Socio-cultural influences:
- support from family & friends
- meaningful activities
- cultural respect for aging
- safe living conditions

Psych (7 decks)

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