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Emotions, Stress & Health Flashcards

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1
Q

What is motivation?

A

Process initiated by a physiological/psychological need/want that causes an indiv to behave in a certain manner in order to achieve a specific goal/incentive
- inferred from gaol-directed behaviour (not observed

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2
Q

What are the two types of motivation?

A
  1. Extrinsic motivation
  2. Intrinsic motivation
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3
Q

What is extrinsic motivation?

A

Performing a behaviour or engaging in an activity to earn a reward/avoid punishment

E.g. studying to get a good grade

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4
Q

What is intrinsic motivation?

A

Performing a behaviour because it is personally rewarding

E.g. playing a sport bc you enjoy it

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5
Q

What are the theories of motivation?

A
  1. Instinct theory
  2. Needs & Drives
  3. Arousal theory
  4. Incentive theory
  5. Humanistic theory
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6
Q

What are instincts?

A

Innate, inflexible, unlearned behaviours characteristic of a species

E.g. spiders spin webs

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7
Q

What is the instinct theory?

A

All organisms are born with innate biological tendencies that help them survive
- Instincts drive ALL behaviours

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8
Q

Who were the early instinct theorists?

A

William James
William McDougall

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9
Q

What did early instinct theorists try to do?

A

Tried to classify human behaviour according to instincts

McDougall –> 18 instincts for humans
List of supposed instincts grew to thousands

Inspired by Darwin

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10
Q

Criticisms of Instinct Theory

A
  • Only described but not explained human behaviours
  • Human behaviours rarely inflexible
  • Most impt human behaviour is learned (a lot of our behaviour is learned rather than innate)
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11
Q

What is need?

A

Condition of tension which stems from lacking essential biological/psychological requirement of an organism
Lack smth desirable or useful

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12
Q

What is drive?

A

State of readiness produced by a need that motivates us towards a goal (behaviour)

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13
Q

What are the types of drive?

A
  1. Primary drives
  2. Secondary drives
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14
Q

What are primary drives?

A

Innate & physiological in nature –> drive-reduction theory

(e.g. hunger, thirst, sexual desire)

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15
Q

Which theory is associated with the necessity of drive for stimuli or events to serve as reinforcers?

A

Operant conditioning

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16
Q

What are secondary drives?

A

Psychological in nature arising as a result of experience –> incentive theory

(e.g. not born with innate desire to become wealth, instead acquire desire bc we learn that money allows us to obtain things that satisfy primary needs)

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17
Q

What is the drive-reduction theory?

A

Physiological need creates an aroused tension state (drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need & reduce the tension

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18
Q

What is the physiological aim of drive-reduction?

A

Homeostasis
- Organism’s natural tendency to maintain a balance of constant internal state (regulation of bld chem –> e.g. bld glucose)

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19
Q

Who was the drive-reduction theory introduced by?

A

Clark Hull

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20
Q

What are the two main theories on the role of psychological needs for motivation?

A
  1. Theory of Needs
  2. Self-Theory of Motivation
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21
Q

What is the theory of needs?

A

3 sets of acquired/learned needs:

  1. Affiliation: desire for friendly & close interpersonal r/s
  2. Achievement: drive to excel, achieve set of standards, strive to succeed
  3. Power: need to make others believe in a way they would not otherwise behave
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22
Q

What is the Self-theory of motivation?

A

Need for achievement linked to person’s view of self (fixed/changeable) & locus of control (LoC)

When faced with challenges/obstacles/efforts/criticism/others’ success:

  • Fixed mindset (External LoC): avoid, give up, no point, deflect, feel threatened
  • Changeable mindset (Internal LoC): embraces, fortitude, work hard, learns, celebrates
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23
Q

What is the arousal theory of motivation?

A

Based on need for stimulation
- Motivated to act in ways to maintain a certain level of arousal (optimal level) in order to feel comfortable
- Link b/w physiological arousal & certain personality types

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24
Q

What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law?

A

Performance related to arousal
- Moderate levels of arousal lead to better performance than too high/too low levels of arousal
- Optimal level of arousal for task performance depends on difficulty of task

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25
Q

What are incentives?

A

Positive or negative stimuli that attract/deter action

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26
Q

What is the incentive theory?

A

Motivated to do things because of external rewards
- Influenced by learning (behavioural) perspective

(e.g. go to work for monetary reward of being paid)

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27
Q

What causes a strong drive?

A

When there is both a need & an incentive

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28
Q

What are the two main humanistic theories of motivation?

A
  1. Hierarchy of needs (again…)
  2. Self-determination theory
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29
Q

Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs (humanistic theories of motivation)

A
  • Primary needs must be met before higher needs can be reached
  • self-actualization: full potential achieved (seldom)
  • peak experiences: periods when self-actualization is temporarily achieved
  • culture & socio-economic factors influence both order & importance of hte stages
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30
Q

What is the self-determination theory?

A

3 innate, universal psychological needs for a complete sense of self & healthy r/s

Intrinsic motivation vs Extrinsic motivation

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31
Q

What are the intrinsic motivations under the Self-determination theory?

A
  1. Autonomy: self-initiation & self-regulation of one’s behaviour
  2. Relatedness: feelings of closeness & belonging to social group
  3. Competence: ability to interact effectively
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32
Q

What are biological motives?

A

For survival & wellbeing (e.g. hunger, thirst, sex)
- All organisms have built-in regulatory system to maintain internal functions –> homeostasis

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33
Q

What are social motives?

A

Learned through experience & interactions with others
(e.g. power, achievement, love, affiliation)

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34
Q

Physiology of hunger

A
  • Hunger does not come from stomach –> comes form body chemistry
  • Body keeps tabs of its available resources to prevent energy deficits & maintain stable body weight
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35
Q

What is glucose?

A

Form of sugar that circulates in blood & provides major source of energy for body tissues
When glucose low = hunger

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36
Q

What is insulin & glucagon?

A

Hormones secreted by pancreas to control levels of fats, proteins, carbs in bloodstream

Insulin reduces glucose levels = hunger
Glucagon increases glucose levels = dec hunger

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37
Q

What did Washburn & Cannon conclude?

A

Stomach contractions play a critical role in signalling hunger to the brain = indicate need to eat

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38
Q

Where else does hunger come from?

A

Hypothalamus
- Hormones travel from various organs of the body to brain –> convey messages that inc/dec appetite

Lateral hypothalamus –> brings on hunger (orexin hormone)
Ventromedial hypothalamus –> suppresses hunger

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39
Q

Types of hormones related to hunger

A
  1. Ghrelin (stomach): signals that the stomach is empty & it’s time to eat
  2. Insulin (pancreas): inc. hunger
  3. Leptin (fat cells): dec. hunger
  4. PYY (digestible system): not hungry
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40
Q

What is the weight set point?

A

Level of weight that body tries to maintain

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41
Q

What is the basal metabolic rate (BMR)?

A

Rate at which body burns energy when resting
- BMR = min. amount of calories to sustain life

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42
Q

How to calculate BMR?

A

Based on weight, height, age, gender

Women = 655 + (9.6 x weight kg) + (1.8 x height cm) - (4.7 x age)

Men = 66 + (13.7 x weight kg) + (5 x height cm) - (6.8 x age)

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43
Q

What happens when the body falls below the set weight point?

A

Increased hunger & lower BMR may act to restore the lost weight

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44
Q

What can influence hunger/eating habits?

A
  • Social cues: conditioned to eat at certain times/certain foods in particular places
  • Societal pressures: presence of others can inc/dec one’s eating
  • Stress/Boredom: comfort eating
  • Cultural customs & ideal body weight
  • Environmental influences: abundance of cheap, high calorie & fast food/processed food, high consumption of soft drinks, etc
  • Gender
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45
Q

What is obesity?

A

Body weight ≥ 20% over ideal body weight in relation to height

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46
Q

Causes of obesity

A
  1. Biological causes: genetics (heredity, hormones, metabolic deficits), slowing metabolism with age
  2. Environmental causes: abundance of unhealthy foods, lifestyle factors (long working hours, reduced exercise)
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47
Q

What is obesity associated with?

A

Assoc. with lower psychological well-being & depression

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48
Q

What are eating disorders?

A

Battle b/w what the body has and body wants
- Anorexia Nervosa
- Bulimia Nervosa
- Binge-eating disorder

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49
Q

What are emotions?

A

“feeling” aspect of consciousness, underlying behaviour, characterized by:
- Physiological & automatic arousal (brain, body, face)
- Neurological rxns towards (emotional) stimuli

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50
Q

What are feelings?

A
  • More cognitive
  • Conscious experience invoked by emotions & shaped by personal memories & beliefs
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51
Q

What is mood?

A

Pervasive and sustained emotion that influences person’s perception of the world (e.g. anger, anxiety)

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52
Q

What is affect?

A

Observable behaviour representing the expression of an emotion
- inferred from body language & facial expressions
- may or may not be consistent with mood

53
Q

Physiology of emotion

A

Physiological arousal of emotion regulated by autonomic NS –> esp sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activation

Parasympathetic division calms down body

54
Q

What are the two emotional hubs in the brain?

A

Limbic system
Prefrontal cortex

55
Q

What is the limbic system?

A

Emotional core of the brain (where senses & awareness first process in the brain) –> esp amygdala

56
Q

What is the prefrontal cortex?

A

Center of higher cognitive & emotional functions (where rational, logical thinking can take place)
- Emotional impulses travel from limbic system –> prefrontal cortex

57
Q

What is the amygdala associated with?

A

Strong emotions, fear, anger, pleasure

58
Q

What is the theory of emotional brain?

A

2 biological pathways
1. Short route
2. Long route
Both pathways can be triggered simultaneously

59
Q

What is the short route of the emotional brain theory?

A

Stimulus (sound/sight) –> thalamus –> amygdala

Fast, “low road”, immediate rxn, subcortical, unconscious

60
Q

What is the long route of the emotional brain theory?

A

Stimulus (sound/sight) –> thalamus –> sensory cortex –> hippocampus –> amygdala

Slower, more complex, “high road”, cortical, conscious

61
Q

What are the other areas of the brain involved with emotions?

A
  • Hemispheres of the brain (right hemi –> interpret facial expressions)
  • Left frontal lobe: positive emotions
  • Right frontal lobe: negative emotions
  • Lateral prefrontal cortex & anterior cingulate cortex: regulation of emotions (e.g. distraction, reappraisal)
62
Q

How are emotions expressed?

A

Facial expressions, body movements, actions

7 universal facial expressions:
- Happy
- Surprise
- Sadness
- Fear
- Anger
- Disgust
- Contempt

Varies across cultures & gender

63
Q

Labelling emotions

A

Subjective (conscious) experience of an emotion
- cognitive appraisal (retrieving similar pas memories, perceiving context of emotion)
- emotional labelling –> largely learned response, influenced by one’s culture & language

64
Q

What are the theories of emotion?

A
  1. Common Sense theory of emotion
  2. James- Lange theory of emotion
  3. Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
  4. Schachter-Singer Cognitive Arousal theory of emotion
  5. Facial Feedback theory of emotion
  6. Lazarus Cognitive Mediational theory of emotion
65
Q

What is the common sense theory?

A

Considered the first theory of emotion
- Cry bc sad, tremble bc afraid, lash out bc angry

if only everything in psych was common sense

66
Q

What is the James-Lange Theory?

A

Common sense theory REVERSED (sorry wtf???)
- sad bc cry, angry bc lash out, afraid bc tremble (wtf??)

Criticism: experience of emotion in patients with spinal cord injuries same after injury as before

67
Q

What is the Cannon-Bard theory?

A

Arousal & emotion occur concurrently

(“I’m shaking & feeling afraid at the same time”)

Criticism: alternate feedback pathway (to ANS) vagus nerve (cranial nerve)

68
Q

What is the Schachter-Singer Cognitive Arousal theory?

A

Arousal & appraisal of arousal (based on cues from env) occur before subjective experience & labelling of emotion

(“This snarling dog is dangerous & that makes me feel afraid”)

Criticism: most research failed to support this theory

69
Q

What is the facial feedback theory?

A

Facial expressions assoc. with arousal provide feedback to brain about emotion –> interprets emotion & intensify it (maybe)

Criticism: does “putting on a happy face” always make you feel happier?

70
Q

What is the Lazarus Cognitive Mediational theory?

A

Appraisal of stimulus results in emotional reaction & followed by physical arousal

Criticism: some emotional reactions are instantaneous (no time for cognitive appraisal); fast route thalamus –> amygdala

71
Q

What is stress?

A

Multifaceted rxn (physical, emotional, cognitive, behavioural) to a stimulus that is appraised as threatening/challenging

72
Q

What are stressors?

A

things that stress you out???

any stimulus (internal/external) that causes a stress rxn

73
Q

What are strains?

A

-ve consequences that occur when stressor’s perceived to exceed one’s capacity

74
Q

What are the types of stress?

A
  • Distress: -ve & unhealthy stress (e.g. financial problems)
  • Eustress: +ve & healthy stress (e.g. starting uni degree)
  • Hyperstress: excessive stress (e.g. dec. immunity, hyperventilation)
  • Hypostress: insufficient stress (e.g. boredom)
75
Q

Acute vs Chronic stress

A

Acute: sudden & short-term stress
Chronic: long-term & prolonged stress

76
Q

What are some characteristics of acute stress?

A
  • Rapid onset, short duration
  • Well-defined cause, typically 1
  • Manageable with treatment
  • Ranges from mild to severe
  • May be accompanied by restlessness & anxiety
  • No significant impact on body
77
Q

What are some characteristics of chronic stress?

A
  • Gradual onset, long duration (months-years)
  • Many causes, or no defined cause
  • Persistent & often treatment-resistant
  • Ranges from mild to severe
  • May be accompanied by depression, anxiety, fatigue, decreased functionality
  • Wear & tear on body
78
Q

What are some external (environmental) stressors?

A
  • Catastrophes (e.g. tsunami, 9/11)
  • Major Life Changes (e.g. divorce, death)
  • Everyday Hassle (e.g. traffic jams, no wifi)
  • Family stressors (e.g. parent-child/sibling issues)
  • Social stressors (e.g. r/s issues, discrimination)
  • Work stressors (e.g. difficult boss/large workload)
79
Q

What are the measures of stressors?

A
  1. Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)
  2. College Undergraduate Stress Scale (CUSS)
80
Q

What is the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)?

A

Assesses impact of major life events over a 1-year period
- Degree of stress = total score of life change units for all experienced events

Assoc. b/w major life events & health
- Score ≤ 150 = 30% chance of getting sick
- Score 150-299 = 50 % chance of getting sick
- Score ≥ 300 = 80% chance of getting sick

81
Q

What is the College Undergraduate Stress Scale (CUSS)?

A

SRRS for college students
- Assess impact of major life events over a 1-year college period
- Average college student experiences 15-20 stressful events a year
- Possible scores: 182-2571
- Normal range: 800-1700

82
Q

What is pressure?

A

Psychological experience caused by urgent demands on a person from an outside source (e.g. time)

83
Q

What is uncontrollability?

A

Degree of control person has over a particular stressor (dec. control = inc. stress)

84
Q

What is frustration?

A

Psychological experience caused when a person’s goals are blocked/unattainable
- typical responses: persistence, aggression, escape/withdrawal

85
Q

What is conflict?

A

Psychological experience related to existence of competing & incompatible goals/action

86
Q

What are the types of conflict?

A
  1. Approach-approach conflict
  2. Avoidance-avoidance conflict
  3. Approach-avoidance conflict
  4. Multiple approach-avoidance conflict
87
Q

What is approach-approach conflict?

A

Choosing b/w two desirable possibilities
- e.g. new smartphone or holiday (obvi a holiday???)

88
Q

What is avoidance-avoidance conflict?

A

Choosing b/w two undesirable possibilities
- e.g. home work or housework (how abt death)

89
Q

What is approach-avoidance conflict?

A

Choosing a goal with both positive & negative aspects
- e.g. getting a promotion but having to work more

90
Q

What is multiple approach-avoidance conflicts?

A

Choosing b/w two goals, each possessing both positive & negative features
- e.g. highly paid job overseas away from friends & family or lower-paid job at home (byebye sg)

91
Q

Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) and stress

A

Fight or flight response
- activated in response to perceived harmful event/threat to survival
- activated when stressed (stress perceived as threat)

Hypothalamus sets off chemical alarm –> SNS responds by releasing flood of stress hormone (adrenaline, norepinephrine, cortisol) –> ready to fight/flee

92
Q

What is the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)?

A

Body’s physiological adaptation to stress which occurs in 3 stages:
1. Alarm reaction (phase 1, stressor occurs)
2. Resistance (phase 2, coping with stressor)
3. Exhaustion (phase 3, reserves depleted)

93
Q

What are the physical reactions at the 3 stages of GAS?

A

Alarm stage:
- Sympathetic NS activated by adrenal glands
- Forehead, neck, shoulder, arm, leg muscles contract
- Pupils enlarge
- Sugar released for energy
- Accelerated heart rate

Resistance stage:
- Forehead, neck, shoulder, arm, leg muscles contract
- Breathing frequent & shallow
- Blood pressure high
- Hormones from adrenal glands released
- Accelerated heart rate

Exhaustion stage:
- Liver runs out of sugar
- Prolonged muscle tension cause fatigue

94
Q

What is the immune system?

A

Body’s defense system against diseases (e.g. virus, bacteria, cancer cells) comprising biological structures & processes

95
Q

Parts of the immune system & their functions

A
  • Thymus: glandular organ where T cells get informed
  • Bone marrow: Bld producing tissue inside some bones
  • Spleen: removes old/damaged RBCs & infectious agents, activates lymphocytes
  • Lymph nodes: small organs that filter out dead cells, antigens –> lymphocytes
  • Lymphatic vessels: collect fluid (lymph) from tissues & return it to circulation
96
Q

What is psychoneuroimmunology?

A

Studies how psychological, neural & endocrine processes affect our immune system & health

97
Q

How does stress affect our immune system & health?

A
  • Suppresses immune system (esp. chronic stress)
  • Assoc. with slower wound healing
  • Assoc. with susceptibility to common cold
  • Stress-weakened immune system = inc likelihood of illness

Stress X make one sick but alters immune functioning = less able to resist infection

98
Q

How does stress cause/affect coronary heart disease?

A

Stress = build up of plague in arteries (liver X clear fat & cholesterol from blood stream, SNS aroused) = clogged arteries = heart attacks

99
Q

How does stress cause/affect type 2 diabetes?

A

Inc/prolonged stress assoc. with weight gain = pancreas insulin levels become less efficient as body size inc.

100
Q

How does stress cause/affect cancer?

A

Stress inc. growth of cancer cells = weakens body’s natural defenses (NK cells) against multiplying malignant cells

101
Q

How does stress cause/affect Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) & Acquired Immune Deficiency System (AIDS)?

A

Stress speeds transition of HIV to AIDS, faster deterioration

102
Q

How does stress cause/affect depression?

A

Stress = overactivity of body’s stress response mechanisms

Chronic stress = inc hormones (cortisol) & dec serotonin & neurotransmitters in brain (incl. dopamine related to depression)

103
Q

What is the cognitive appraisal approach?

A

Experience of stress is dependent on the appraisal (interpretation) of stressor based on 2 factors
- Level of threat
- Resources available

104
Q

What is primary appraisal?

A

Assessing severity of stressor: threat or challenge

“How threatening is the event to my well-being?”

105
Q

What is secondary appraisal?

A

Assessing resources available to cope with the stressor

“Do I have the resources to deal with the stressor?”

106
Q

What are the characteristics of Type A personality?

A
  • Ambitious/achievement oriented
  • Hardworking/competitive
  • Time conscious/impatient
  • Hostile
  • Easily annoyed
107
Q

What are the health issues associated with Type A personality?

A
  • Aggression
  • Hypertension
  • Heart disease
  • Job stress
  • Social isolation

Assoc. with inc. risk of coronary heart disease (CHD)

108
Q

What are the characteristics of Type B personality?

A
  • Relaxed & laid-back
  • Patient
  • Less driven & competitive
  • Slow to anger
109
Q

What are the health issues of Type B personality?

A
  • Less likely to develop heart disease than type A (yay!)
  • Apathetic

Lower risk of CHD & more relaxed lifestyle

110
Q

What are the characteristics of Type C personality?

A
  • Pleasant but repressed
  • Difficulty expressing emotions
  • Internalise anger & anxiety
  • Overly patient & compliant
111
Q

What are the health issues related to Type C personality?

A
  • Higher CANCER rates
  • Loneliness
  • Internal conflict
  • Despair & hopelessness
112
Q

What are the characteristics of Hardy personality?

A
  • Thrive on stress but lacks anger & hostility
  • Strong commitment to values
  • In control of own lives
  • View problems as challenges
113
Q

What health stuff is related to Hardy personality?

A

Eustress
Resilient

Assoc. with healthier lifestyle

114
Q

Criticisms of personality types

A
  • Too simplistic –> cannot capture complexities of personality
  • Distinction of Type A and B personality not entirely supported by professionals
  • Type A behaviour not a good predictor of CHD
  • More sophisticated model needed to accurately predict CHD
115
Q

What are the benefits of personality types?

A
  • Characteristics can help understand the underlying mechanisms of personality assoc. with stress & health
  • Useful for developing effective intervention plans
116
Q

Optimists vs Pessimists

A

Optimists: tend to focus on positive aspects of situation

Pessimists: tend to focus on negative & expect the worst

117
Q

Relation between optimists and health

A
  • More likely to take care of their health (more in control)
  • Have a better immune system (lower psychological stress)
  • Less likely to quit trying to achieve a goal that has been blocked in the past (learned helplessness)
  • Less likely to become depressed
118
Q

What are some social factors that affect stress?

A
  • Poverty: basic needs not met, limited resources, poor medical care & ill-health
  • Job stress & Burnout: workload, work schedule, lack of fulfilment, limited control, prolonged work stress –> burnout (exhaustion)
  • Social support: good –> better immune system, less illnesses (physical & mental), longevity, better health & coping mechanisms
  • Culture: having to adapt to new/dominant culture (acculturation
119
Q

What coping strategy to use when stressor is controllable?

A

Problem-focused

120
Q

What coping strategy to use when stressor is uncontrollable?

A

Emotion-focused

121
Q

What are some active (adaptive) problem-focused coping strategies?

A
  • Seeking information
  • Goal-setting
  • Decision-making
  • Problem-solving
  • Requesting help
  • Conflict resolution
  • Cognitive restructuring
122
Q

What are some passive (maladaptive) problem-focused coping strategies?

A
  • Behavioural avoidance (long-term)
  • Cognitive avoidance (denial)
123
Q

What are some active (adaptive) emotion-focused coping strategies?

A
  • Reappraisal of situation
  • Exercise/recreation (short-term avoidance)
  • Meditation/relaxation
  • Faith/spiritual support
  • Expressing emotions (journal, talking to others, venting)
  • Social support
124
Q

What are some passive (maladaptive) emotion-focused coping strategies?

A
  • Self-neglect
  • Social withdrawal
  • Rumination
  • Distractive behaviours (smoking, alcohol, drugs)
  • Resignation
125
Q

Culture and stress

A

Perception of stressors & experience of stress vary culturally
- Coping strategies vary cross-culturally

126
Q

Faith/Religion and stress

A
  • Spiritual/religious people found to cope better with stress
  • Healthier behaviours, stronger social support, positive emotions
127
Q

How to decrease stress & illness and increase healthy beahviours?

A
  1. Realistic optimism: have positive outlook on life + realistic grasp of the present & what to expect
  2. Conscientiousness: purposeful action, self-discipline, drive to achieve (enjoy challenges)
  3. Internal locus of control: perception that one is in control of own behaviour & consequences
128
Q

How to be a realistic optimist?

A

slide 31 of lecture 5 part 2

Psych (7 decks)

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