Emotions, Stress & Health Flashcards
1
Q
What is motivation?
A
Process initiated by a physiological/psychological need/want that causes an indiv to behave in a certain manner in order to achieve a specific goal/incentive
- inferred from gaol-directed behaviour (not observed
2
Q
What are the two types of motivation?
A
- Extrinsic motivation
- Intrinsic motivation
3
Q
What is extrinsic motivation?
A
Performing a behaviour or engaging in an activity to earn a reward/avoid punishment
E.g. studying to get a good grade
4
Q
What is intrinsic motivation?
A
Performing a behaviour because it is personally rewarding
E.g. playing a sport bc you enjoy it
5
Q
What are the theories of motivation?
A
- Instinct theory
- Needs & Drives
- Arousal theory
- Incentive theory
- Humanistic theory
6
Q
What are instincts?
A
Innate, inflexible, unlearned behaviours characteristic of a species
E.g. spiders spin webs
7
Q
What is the instinct theory?
A
All organisms are born with innate biological tendencies that help them survive
- Instincts drive ALL behaviours
8
Q
Who were the early instinct theorists?
A
William James
William McDougall
9
Q
What did early instinct theorists try to do?
A
Tried to classify human behaviour according to instincts
McDougall –> 18 instincts for humans
List of supposed instincts grew to thousands
Inspired by Darwin
10
Q
Criticisms of Instinct Theory
A
- Only described but not explained human behaviours
- Human behaviours rarely inflexible
- Most impt human behaviour is learned (a lot of our behaviour is learned rather than innate)
11
Q
What is need?
A
Condition of tension which stems from lacking essential biological/psychological requirement of an organism
Lack smth desirable or useful
12
Q
What is drive?
A
State of readiness produced by a need that motivates us towards a goal (behaviour)
13
Q
What are the types of drive?
A
- Primary drives
- Secondary drives
14
Q
What are primary drives?
A
Innate & physiological in nature –> drive-reduction theory
(e.g. hunger, thirst, sexual desire)
15
Q
Which theory is associated with the necessity of drive for stimuli or events to serve as reinforcers?
A
Operant conditioning
16
Q
What are secondary drives?
A
Psychological in nature arising as a result of experience –> incentive theory
(e.g. not born with innate desire to become wealth, instead acquire desire bc we learn that money allows us to obtain things that satisfy primary needs)
17
Q
What is the drive-reduction theory?
A
Physiological need creates an aroused tension state (drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need & reduce the tension
18
Q
What is the physiological aim of drive-reduction?
A
Homeostasis
- Organism’s natural tendency to maintain a balance of constant internal state (regulation of bld chem –> e.g. bld glucose)
19
Q
Who was the drive-reduction theory introduced by?
A
Clark Hull
20
Q
What are the two main theories on the role of psychological needs for motivation?
A
- Theory of Needs
- Self-Theory of Motivation
21
Q
What is the theory of needs?
A
3 sets of acquired/learned needs:
- Affiliation: desire for friendly & close interpersonal r/s
- Achievement: drive to excel, achieve set of standards, strive to succeed
- Power: need to make others believe in a way they would not otherwise behave
22
Q
What is the Self-theory of motivation?
A
Need for achievement linked to person’s view of self (fixed/changeable) & locus of control (LoC)
When faced with challenges/obstacles/efforts/criticism/others’ success:
- Fixed mindset (External LoC): avoid, give up, no point, deflect, feel threatened
- Changeable mindset (Internal LoC): embraces, fortitude, work hard, learns, celebrates
23
Q
What is the arousal theory of motivation?
A
Based on need for stimulation
- Motivated to act in ways to maintain a certain level of arousal (optimal level) in order to feel comfortable
- Link b/w physiological arousal & certain personality types
24
Q
What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law?
A
Performance related to arousal
- Moderate levels of arousal lead to better performance than too high/too low levels of arousal
- Optimal level of arousal for task performance depends on difficulty of task
25
What are incentives?
Positive or negative stimuli that attract/deter action
26
What is the incentive theory?
Motivated to do things because of external rewards
- Influenced by learning (behavioural) perspective
(e.g. go to work for monetary reward of being paid)
27
What causes a strong drive?
When there is both a need & an incentive
28
What are the two main humanistic theories of motivation?
1. Hierarchy of needs (again...)
2. Self-determination theory
29
Maslow's Hierarchy of needs (humanistic theories of motivation)
- Primary needs must be met before higher needs can be reached
- self-actualization: full potential achieved (seldom)
- peak experiences: periods when self-actualization is temporarily achieved
- culture & socio-economic factors influence both order & importance of hte stages
30
What is the self-determination theory?
3 innate, universal psychological needs for a complete sense of self & healthy r/s
Intrinsic motivation vs Extrinsic motivation
31
What are the intrinsic motivations under the Self-determination theory?
1. Autonomy: self-initiation & self-regulation of one's behaviour
2. Relatedness: feelings of closeness & belonging to social group
3. Competence: ability to interact effectively
32
What are biological motives?
For survival & wellbeing (e.g. hunger, thirst, sex)
- All organisms have built-in regulatory system to maintain internal functions --> homeostasis
33
What are social motives?
Learned through experience & interactions with others
(e.g. power, achievement, love, affiliation)
34
Physiology of hunger
- Hunger does not come from stomach --> comes form body chemistry
- Body keeps tabs of its available resources to prevent energy deficits & maintain stable body weight
35
What is glucose?
Form of sugar that circulates in blood & provides major source of energy for body tissues
When glucose low = hunger
36
What is insulin & glucagon?
Hormones secreted by pancreas to control levels of fats, proteins, carbs in bloodstream
Insulin reduces glucose levels = hunger
Glucagon increases glucose levels = dec hunger
37
What did Washburn & Cannon conclude?
Stomach contractions play a critical role in signalling hunger to the brain = indicate need to eat
38
Where else does hunger come from?
Hypothalamus
- Hormones travel from various organs of the body to brain --> convey messages that inc/dec appetite
Lateral hypothalamus --> brings on hunger (orexin hormone)
Ventromedial hypothalamus --> suppresses hunger
39
Types of hormones related to hunger
1. Ghrelin (stomach): signals that the stomach is empty & it's time to eat
2. Insulin (pancreas): inc. hunger
3. Leptin (fat cells): dec. hunger
4. PYY (digestible system): not hungry
40
What is the weight set point?
Level of weight that body tries to maintain
41
What is the basal metabolic rate (BMR)?
Rate at which body burns energy when resting
- BMR = min. amount of calories to sustain life
42
How to calculate BMR?
Based on weight, height, age, gender
Women = 655 + (9.6 x weight kg) + (1.8 x height cm) - (4.7 x age)
Men = 66 + (13.7 x weight kg) + (5 x height cm) - (6.8 x age)
43
What happens when the body falls below the set weight point?
Increased hunger & lower BMR may act to restore the lost weight
44
What can influence hunger/eating habits?
- Social cues: conditioned to eat at certain times/certain foods in particular places
- Societal pressures: presence of others can inc/dec one's eating
- Stress/Boredom: comfort eating
- Cultural customs & ideal body weight
- Environmental influences: abundance of cheap, high calorie & fast food/processed food, high consumption of soft drinks, etc
- Gender
45
What is obesity?
Body weight ≥ 20% over ideal body weight in relation to height
46
Causes of obesity
1. Biological causes: genetics (heredity, hormones, metabolic deficits), slowing metabolism with age
2. Environmental causes: abundance of unhealthy foods, lifestyle factors (long working hours, reduced exercise)
47
What is obesity associated with?
Assoc. with lower psychological well-being & depression
48
What are eating disorders?
Battle b/w what the body has and body wants
- Anorexia Nervosa
- Bulimia Nervosa
- Binge-eating disorder
49
What are emotions?
"feeling" aspect of consciousness, underlying behaviour, characterized by:
- Physiological & automatic arousal (brain, body, face)
- Neurological rxns towards (emotional) stimuli
50
What are feelings?
- More cognitive
- Conscious experience invoked by emotions & shaped by personal memories & beliefs
51
What is mood?
Pervasive and sustained emotion that influences person's perception of the world (e.g. anger, anxiety)
52
What is affect?
Observable behaviour representing the expression of an emotion
- inferred from body language & facial expressions
- may or may not be consistent with mood
53
Physiology of emotion
Physiological arousal of emotion regulated by autonomic NS --> esp sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activation
Parasympathetic division calms down body
54
What are the two emotional hubs in the brain?
Limbic system
Prefrontal cortex
55
What is the limbic system?
Emotional core of the brain (where senses & awareness first process in the brain) --> esp amygdala
56
What is the prefrontal cortex?
Center of higher cognitive & emotional functions (where rational, logical thinking can take place)
- Emotional impulses travel from limbic system --> prefrontal cortex
57
What is the amygdala associated with?
Strong emotions, fear, anger, pleasure
58
What is the theory of emotional brain?
2 biological pathways
1. Short route
2. Long route
Both pathways can be triggered simultaneously
59
What is the short route of the emotional brain theory?
Stimulus (sound/sight) --> thalamus --> amygdala
Fast, "low road", immediate rxn, subcortical, unconscious
60
What is the long route of the emotional brain theory?
Stimulus (sound/sight) --> thalamus --> sensory cortex --> hippocampus --> amygdala
Slower, more complex, "high road", cortical, conscious
61
What are the other areas of the brain involved with emotions?
- Hemispheres of the brain (right hemi --> interpret facial expressions)
- Left frontal lobe: positive emotions
- Right frontal lobe: negative emotions
- Lateral prefrontal cortex & anterior cingulate cortex: regulation of emotions (e.g. distraction, reappraisal)
62
How are emotions expressed?
Facial expressions, body movements, actions
7 universal facial expressions:
- Happy
- Surprise
- Sadness
- Fear
- Anger
- Disgust
- Contempt
Varies across cultures & gender
63
Labelling emotions
Subjective (conscious) experience of an emotion
- cognitive appraisal (retrieving similar pas memories, perceiving context of emotion)
- emotional labelling --> largely learned response, influenced by one's culture & language
64
What are the theories of emotion?
1. Common Sense theory of emotion
2. James- Lange theory of emotion
3. Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
4. Schachter-Singer Cognitive Arousal theory of emotion
5. Facial Feedback theory of emotion
6. Lazarus Cognitive Mediational theory of emotion
65
What is the common sense theory?
Considered the first theory of emotion
- Cry bc sad, tremble bc afraid, lash out bc angry
if only everything in psych was common sense
66
What is the James-Lange Theory?
Common sense theory REVERSED (sorry wtf???)
- sad bc cry, angry bc lash out, afraid bc tremble (wtf??)
Criticism: experience of emotion in patients with spinal cord injuries same after injury as before
67
What is the Cannon-Bard theory?
Arousal & emotion occur concurrently
("I'm shaking & feeling afraid at the same time")
Criticism: alternate feedback pathway (to ANS) vagus nerve (cranial nerve)
68
What is the Schachter-Singer Cognitive Arousal theory?
Arousal & appraisal of arousal (based on cues from env) occur before subjective experience & labelling of emotion
("This snarling dog is dangerous & that makes me feel afraid")
Criticism: most research failed to support this theory
69
What is the facial feedback theory?
Facial expressions assoc. with arousal provide feedback to brain about emotion --> interprets emotion & intensify it (maybe)
Criticism: does "putting on a happy face" always make you feel happier?
70
What is the Lazarus Cognitive Mediational theory?
Appraisal of stimulus results in emotional reaction & followed by physical arousal
Criticism: some emotional reactions are instantaneous (no time for cognitive appraisal); fast route thalamus --> amygdala
71
What is stress?
Multifaceted rxn (physical, emotional, cognitive, behavioural) to a stimulus that is appraised as threatening/challenging
72
What are stressors?
things that stress you out???
any stimulus (internal/external) that causes a stress rxn
73
What are strains?
-ve consequences that occur when stressor's perceived to exceed one's capacity
74
What are the types of stress?
- Distress: -ve & unhealthy stress (e.g. financial problems)
- Eustress: +ve & healthy stress (e.g. starting uni degree)
- Hyperstress: excessive stress (e.g. dec. immunity, hyperventilation)
- Hypostress: insufficient stress (e.g. boredom)
75
Acute vs Chronic stress
Acute: sudden & short-term stress
Chronic: long-term & prolonged stress
76
What are some characteristics of acute stress?
- Rapid onset, short duration
- Well-defined cause, typically 1
- Manageable with treatment
- Ranges from mild to severe
- May be accompanied by restlessness & anxiety
- No significant impact on body
77
What are some characteristics of chronic stress?
- Gradual onset, long duration (months-years)
- Many causes, or no defined cause
- Persistent & often treatment-resistant
- Ranges from mild to severe
- May be accompanied by depression, anxiety, fatigue, decreased functionality
- Wear & tear on body
78
What are some external (environmental) stressors?
- Catastrophes (e.g. tsunami, 9/11)
- Major Life Changes (e.g. divorce, death)
- Everyday Hassle (e.g. traffic jams, no wifi)
- Family stressors (e.g. parent-child/sibling issues)
- Social stressors (e.g. r/s issues, discrimination)
- Work stressors (e.g. difficult boss/large workload)
79
What are the measures of stressors?
1. Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)
2. College Undergraduate Stress Scale (CUSS)
80
What is the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)?
Assesses impact of major life events over a 1-year period
- Degree of stress = total score of life change units for all experienced events
Assoc. b/w major life events & health
- Score ≤ 150 = 30% chance of getting sick
- Score 150-299 = 50 % chance of getting sick
- Score ≥ 300 = 80% chance of getting sick
81
What is the College Undergraduate Stress Scale (CUSS)?
SRRS for college students
- Assess impact of major life events over a 1-year college period
- Average college student experiences 15-20 stressful events a year
- Possible scores: 182-2571
- Normal range: 800-1700
82
What is pressure?
Psychological experience caused by urgent demands on a person from an outside source (e.g. time)
83
What is uncontrollability?
Degree of control person has over a particular stressor (dec. control = inc. stress)
84
What is frustration?
Psychological experience caused when a person's goals are blocked/unattainable
- typical responses: persistence, aggression, escape/withdrawal
85
What is conflict?
Psychological experience related to existence of competing & incompatible goals/action
86
What are the types of conflict?
1. Approach-approach conflict
2. Avoidance-avoidance conflict
3. Approach-avoidance conflict
4. Multiple approach-avoidance conflict
87
What is approach-approach conflict?
Choosing b/w two desirable possibilities
- e.g. new smartphone or holiday (obvi a holiday???)
88
What is avoidance-avoidance conflict?
Choosing b/w two undesirable possibilities
- e.g. home work or housework (how abt death)
89
What is approach-avoidance conflict?
Choosing a goal with both positive & negative aspects
- e.g. getting a promotion but having to work more
90
What is multiple approach-avoidance conflicts?
Choosing b/w two goals, each possessing both positive & negative features
- e.g. highly paid job overseas away from friends & family or lower-paid job at home (byebye sg)
91
Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) and stress
Fight or flight response
- activated in response to perceived harmful event/threat to survival
- activated when stressed (stress perceived as threat)
Hypothalamus sets off chemical alarm --> SNS responds by releasing flood of stress hormone (adrenaline, norepinephrine, cortisol) --> ready to fight/flee
92
What is the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)?
Body's physiological adaptation to stress which occurs in 3 stages:
1. Alarm reaction (phase 1, stressor occurs)
2. Resistance (phase 2, coping with stressor)
3. Exhaustion (phase 3, reserves depleted)
93
What are the physical reactions at the 3 stages of GAS?
Alarm stage:
- Sympathetic NS activated by adrenal glands
- Forehead, neck, shoulder, arm, leg muscles contract
- Pupils enlarge
- Sugar released for energy
- Accelerated heart rate
Resistance stage:
- Forehead, neck, shoulder, arm, leg muscles contract
- Breathing frequent & shallow
- Blood pressure high
- Hormones from adrenal glands released
- Accelerated heart rate
Exhaustion stage:
- Liver runs out of sugar
- Prolonged muscle tension cause fatigue
94
What is the immune system?
Body's defense system against diseases (e.g. virus, bacteria, cancer cells) comprising biological structures & processes
95
Parts of the immune system & their functions
- Thymus: glandular organ where T cells get informed
- Bone marrow: Bld producing tissue inside some bones
- Spleen: removes old/damaged RBCs & infectious agents, activates lymphocytes
- Lymph nodes: small organs that filter out dead cells, antigens --> lymphocytes
- Lymphatic vessels: collect fluid (lymph) from tissues & return it to circulation
96
What is psychoneuroimmunology?
Studies how psychological, neural & endocrine processes affect our immune system & health
97
How does stress affect our immune system & health?
- Suppresses immune system (esp. chronic stress)
- Assoc. with slower wound healing
- Assoc. with susceptibility to common cold
- Stress-weakened immune system = inc likelihood of illness
Stress X make one sick but alters immune functioning = less able to resist infection
98
How does stress cause/affect coronary heart disease?
Stress = build up of plague in arteries (liver X clear fat & cholesterol from blood stream, SNS aroused) = clogged arteries = heart attacks
99
How does stress cause/affect type 2 diabetes?
Inc/prolonged stress assoc. with weight gain = pancreas insulin levels become less efficient as body size inc.
100
How does stress cause/affect cancer?
Stress inc. growth of cancer cells = weakens body's natural defenses (NK cells) against multiplying malignant cells
101
How does stress cause/affect Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) & Acquired Immune Deficiency System (AIDS)?
Stress speeds transition of HIV to AIDS, faster deterioration
102
How does stress cause/affect depression?
Stress = overactivity of body's stress response mechanisms
Chronic stress = inc hormones (cortisol) & dec serotonin & neurotransmitters in brain (incl. dopamine related to depression)
103
What is the cognitive appraisal approach?
Experience of stress is dependent on the appraisal (interpretation) of stressor based on 2 factors
- Level of threat
- Resources available
104
What is primary appraisal?
Assessing severity of stressor: threat or challenge
"How threatening is the event to my well-being?"
105
What is secondary appraisal?
Assessing resources available to cope with the stressor
"Do I have the resources to deal with the stressor?"
106
What are the characteristics of Type A personality?
- Ambitious/achievement oriented
- Hardworking/competitive
- Time conscious/impatient
- Hostile
- Easily annoyed
107
What are the health issues associated with Type A personality?
- Aggression
- Hypertension
- Heart disease
- Job stress
- Social isolation
Assoc. with inc. risk of coronary heart disease (CHD)
108
What are the characteristics of Type B personality?
- Relaxed & laid-back
- Patient
- Less driven & competitive
- Slow to anger
109
What are the health issues of Type B personality?
- Less likely to develop heart disease than type A (yay!)
- Apathetic
Lower risk of CHD & more relaxed lifestyle
110
What are the characteristics of Type C personality?
- Pleasant but repressed
- Difficulty expressing emotions
- Internalise anger & anxiety
- Overly patient & compliant
111
What are the health issues related to Type C personality?
- Higher CANCER rates
- Loneliness
- Internal conflict
- Despair & hopelessness
112
What are the characteristics of Hardy personality?
- Thrive on stress but lacks anger & hostility
- Strong commitment to values
- In control of own lives
- View problems as challenges
113
What health stuff is related to Hardy personality?
Eustress
Resilient
Assoc. with healthier lifestyle
114
Criticisms of personality types
- Too simplistic --> cannot capture complexities of personality
- Distinction of Type A and B personality not entirely supported by professionals
- Type A behaviour not a good predictor of CHD
- More sophisticated model needed to accurately predict CHD
115
What are the benefits of personality types?
- Characteristics can help understand the underlying mechanisms of personality assoc. with stress & health
- Useful for developing effective intervention plans
116
Optimists vs Pessimists
Optimists: tend to focus on positive aspects of situation
Pessimists: tend to focus on negative & expect the worst
117
Relation between optimists and health
- More likely to take care of their health (more in control)
- Have a better immune system (lower psychological stress)
- Less likely to quit trying to achieve a goal that has been blocked in the past (learned helplessness)
- Less likely to become depressed
118
What are some social factors that affect stress?
- Poverty: basic needs not met, limited resources, poor medical care & ill-health
- Job stress & Burnout: workload, work schedule, lack of fulfilment, limited control, prolonged work stress --> burnout (exhaustion)
- Social support: good --> better immune system, less illnesses (physical & mental), longevity, better health & coping mechanisms
- Culture: having to adapt to new/dominant culture (acculturation
119
What coping strategy to use when stressor is controllable?
Problem-focused
120
What coping strategy to use when stressor is uncontrollable?
Emotion-focused
121
What are some active (adaptive) problem-focused coping strategies?
- Seeking information
- Goal-setting
- Decision-making
- Problem-solving
- Requesting help
- Conflict resolution
- Cognitive restructuring
122
What are some passive (maladaptive) problem-focused coping strategies?
- Behavioural avoidance (long-term)
- Cognitive avoidance (denial)
123
What are some active (adaptive) emotion-focused coping strategies?
- Reappraisal of situation
- Exercise/recreation (short-term avoidance)
- Meditation/relaxation
- Faith/spiritual support
- Expressing emotions (journal, talking to others, venting)
- Social support
124
What are some passive (maladaptive) emotion-focused coping strategies?
- Self-neglect
- Social withdrawal
- Rumination
- Distractive behaviours (smoking, alcohol, drugs)
- Resignation
125
Culture and stress
Perception of stressors & experience of stress vary culturally
- Coping strategies vary cross-culturally
126
Faith/Religion and stress
- Spiritual/religious people found to cope better with stress
- Healthier behaviours, stronger social support, positive emotions
127
How to decrease stress & illness and increase healthy beahviours?
1. Realistic optimism: have positive outlook on life + realistic grasp of the present & what to expect
2. Conscientiousness: purposeful action, self-discipline, drive to achieve (enjoy challenges)
3. Internal locus of control: perception that one is in control of own behaviour & consequences
128
How to be a realistic optimist?
slide 31 of lecture 5 part 2
