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The brain & the mind PART 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is thinking?

A

mental activities that go on in the brain when processing, organising, understanding, communicating info to others

any mental functions assumed to be involved in:
- acquisition
- storage
- interpretation
- manipulation
- transformation
- use of knowledge

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2
Q

What is problem solving?

A

Cognitive process of brain at higher cognitive layer that searches a solution for a given problem/finds a path to reach a given goal

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3
Q

What is decision making?

A

cognitive process of choosing b/w 2 or more alternatives

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4
Q

What are the strategies to understand decision making?

A
  1. statistical analysis of multiple decisions involving complex tasks (e.g. projecting rate of success or level of riskiness)
  2. experimental manipulation of simple decisions
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5
Q

What are the types of problem solving methods?

A
  1. trial & error (strategy based)
  2. algorithm (strategy based)
  3. heuristic (strategy based)
  4. insight
  5. intuition
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6
Q

What is the algorithm problem solving method?

A

methodical, step-by-step procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

SLOWER but MORE ACCURATE than heuristic

e.g. math formula

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7
Q

What is heuristic problem solving method?

A

rule of thumb = judgemental shortcuts; based on prior experiences = suggests course of action w/o guaranteeing an optimal solution

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8
Q

List the 4 types of heuristic problem solving method.

A
  1. Representativeness
  2. Availability
  3. Working backward
  4. Sub-goals
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9
Q

What is representativeness heuristic?

A

rule of thumb for judging the probability of membership in a category = based on how well an object/person is representative of that category

basically grouping them into a category (stereotype)

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10
Q

What is there a tendency for in representativeness heuristic?

A

Tendency to overgeneralise from few characteristics/observations

–> stereotype (e.g. someone wearing suit & tie & carry briefcase = might think they are a lawyer = bc they look like the stereotype of a lawyer)

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11
Q

What are the disadvantages of heuristic problem solving?

A

Less accurate but faster prob solving method
Often influenced by errors & biases = affect quality of decision

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12
Q

What is availability heuristic?

A

est. the frequency/likelihood of an event based on immediate examples that come to mind = if smth can be recalled means its impt

the more available & relevant the info there is, the more likely the event is judged to be more likely to happen

basically, e.g. you see a lot of new on plane crashes = you rely on this info = decide/think that plane crashes are more likely than they actlly are

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13
Q

What is working backward heuristics?

A

attempting to solve a prob by working from the goal backward to the starting goal

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14
Q

What is sub-goals heuristics?

A

breaking larger prob into smaller, more manageable goals
as each sub-goal is achieved = final solution is closer

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15
Q

What is insight?

A

“aha!” moment = sudden realisation of prob’s solution
CONTRASTS w strategy based solutions (bc insight has NO precursors leading to sol.)

note: sleep might facilitate insight = bc sleep restructures knowledge & brings out details of novel nature

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16
Q

What is intuition?

A

“gut feeling”
effortless, immediate, automatic feeling/thought
CONTRASTS w explicit, conscious reasoning

Product of brain processing automatically compared to perceived elements of current experience w past experience & knowledge = delivered to awareness w emotional certainty

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17
Q

What are the problem solving barriers?

A
  1. Functional fixedness
  2. Mental set
  3. Confirmation bias
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18
Q

What is functional fixedness?

A

fixated on thinking abt objects only in terms of their typical functions resulting in MENTAL BLOCK

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19
Q

How to overcome functional fixedness?

A

think of all ways to make use of the same objects

e.g. lockdown; ppl who like to go gym but cannot = creative = turn furnitures/everyday things into weights/to use

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20
Q

What is mental set?

A

tendency to solve problems using approaches that worked previously for similar problems

BUT not useful when prob requires new approach

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21
Q

What is confirmation bias?

A

tendency to favour info that confirms one’s existing beliefs/theories, while IGNORING contradicting evidence

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22
Q

What are the types of thinking?

A
  1. convergent thinking
  2. divergent thinking
  3. creative thinking (similar to divergent)
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23
Q

What is convergent thinking?

A

all thinking pointed to one solution (prob solving)

uses linear logical steps to analyse already formulated sol. to determine correct one

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24
Q

What is divergent thinking?

A

generating more than one sol. (creative thinking; aka lateral thinking)

uses strategies that deviate frm commonly used/prev. thought strategies

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25
What is creative thinking?
combi of flexibility in thinking & reorganisation of understanding to prod. innovative ideas & new sol.
26
How to stim. divergent thinking?
brainstorming keep a journal freewriting mind/subject mapping
27
What is reasoning?
purposeful mental activity that involves drawing conclusions frm observations, facts/assumptions
28
What are the types of reasoning (3 points)?
1. formal reasoning 2. informal reasoning 3. reflective judgement
29
What is formal reasoning?
aka deductive reasoning - algorithms & formal logic - prob w one (best) sol. e.g. mcq exam
30
What is informal reasoning?
aka dialectical reasoning - heuristics - prob often w no single correct sol. that require evaluation of opposing POV
31
What is reflective judgement?
critical thinking ability to evaluate & integrate evidence, consider alt. interpretations & reach a defensible conclusion directed prob-focused thinking
32
What is inductive reasoning?
- inferences & general principles are drawn frm specific observations & cases - typical scientific research
33
What is deductive reasoning?
- conclusion is shown to follow frm a series of premises = if preceding premise is true = conclusion CANNOT be wrong e.g. All dogs have ears, golden retrievers are dogs, therefore they have ears
34
What is intelligence?
ability to: - learn from experience - acquire knowledge - act purposefully - adapt to new situations
35
What are the 3 influential theories of intelligence?
1. Spearman's General Intelligence Factor (g factor) 2. Gardner's Multiple Intelligences 3. Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
36
What is social intelligence?
knowledge in social situations & self management basically, understand ppl & effectively relate to them
37
Abstract intelligence & Concrete intelligence
Abstract - ability to think in terms of abstract concepts Concrete - ability to understand & manipulate objects
38
What is an intelligence test?
assess person's mental abilities in comparison to others (age-peers) - solve prob - acquire. details - form concepts, etc
39
Most influential intelligence tests
1. Mental Ability Test 2. Stanford-Binet Test 3. Wechsler Tests (Adult, Children, Preschool & Primary)
40
How is intelligence measured?
1. Chronological age (CA) = age lor 2. Mental age (MA) = measure of intelligence test performance; the age that your performance is at (e.g. perform as well as an 8 y/o = mental age of 8 3. Intelligence Quotient (QA) = ratio of MA to CA multiplied by 100 IQ = MA/CA x 100
41
What is the Stanford-Binet test?
2 y/o - 59 y/o - Score of 100 is average (IQ score) - assess verbal & nonverbal - comprise of 10 subtests = reasoning (verbal, quantitative, visual/abstract) & memory (short-term)
42
What are the Wechsler tests?
16 y/o - 90 y/o age-based intelligence tests WAIS: adults WISC: children WPPSI: preschool children - comprises of 10 subtests - 4 index scores: Verbal comprehension, Perceptual reasoning, Working memory, Processing speed
43
What are the 3 criteria intelligence tests must meet?
1. Standardisation 2. Reliability 3. Validity
44
What is standardisation?
implied uniformity of procedure in administering & scoring test in large grps of ppl - most intelligence tests follow a normal curve = bell-shaped curve
45
What is reliability?
test produces same results each time given to same people free of random error
46
What is validity?
test measures what it's supposed to measure/predict
47
How useful are IQ tests?
- Usually valid for predicting academic success & job performance - Identifies ppl who DIFFER GREATLY frm those of average intelligence - Neuropsychology = head injury, learning disabilities, disorders
48
How to assess validity & significance of any test?
Look at the score of the 2 extremes of the normal curve
49
What is the low intelligence extreme?
Intellectual disability - deficits in mental ability (IQ<70) & adaptive behaviour Causes of developmental delay: - chromosome/genetic disorders (e.g. down syndrome, etc) - deprived env. - drug & alcohol - dietary deficiencies
50
What is the high intelligence extreme?
Giftedness - IQ ≥ 130 (top 2%) - geniuses: IQ ≥. 140 - Generally guarantees success - Typically develop into well-adjusted adults (UNLESS pushed to achieve at young age & may have vv little social interaction) - Geniuses: some social & behavioural adjustment probs
51
Nature vs Nurture in intelligence
Usually 50:50 - IQ heritability est. at 0.50 (experience involved) - Flynn effect = IQ scores steadily inc. over time in modern countries
52
Ethnicity & IQ
X significant r/s
53
What are some environmental influences on intelligence?
1. poor prenatal care 2. malnutrition 3. exposure to toxins 4. stressful family circumstances 5. living in an impoverished & disadvantaged neighbourhoods (SES)
54
Intellectual performance is strongly influenced by:
motivation self-discipline cultural expectations, attitudes towards edu, beliefs about origins of mental abilities
55
When is the critical period for language development?
2-7 y/o Child learning 2nd language <7 y/o will have X accent
56
Linguistic relativity hypothesis
(Whorf hypothesis) language controls the development of thought processes & concepts structure of language affects speakers' worldview/cognition Basically, the language you speak affects how you think about the world
57
Cognitive universalism
concepts are universal & influence development of language
58
language & thought interplay
thinking ↔ language
59
What is cognitive fitness?
state of optimised ability to reason, rmb, learn, plan, adapt
60
What is memory?
active system that encodes info received frm senses, organises & stores info & retrieves it when required
61
What are the 3 processes of memory?
1. Encoding: transform incoming info (sensory input) = form that can be stored 2. Storage: hold info until needed 3. Retrieval: locate stored info in memory & getting it out so can be used
62
What are the 3 main models of memory?
1. Information Processing Model 2. Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) model 3. Levels-of-Processing Model
63
What is the information processing model?
info for storage is processed in series of 3 stages
64
What is the parallel distributed processing (PDP) model?
simultaneous processing of info across multiple neural networks
65
What is the levels-of-processing model?
info is processed according to its meaning; deeper level of processing = longer retention
66
Look at slide 39 of lecture 2 (week 8) the brain & the mind part 2 1. What happens when selective attention doesn't happen? 2. What happens w/o maintenance rehearsal? 3. What happens w/o consolidation?
1. sensory memory is lost 2. short term memory is lost 3. short term memo will not be converted to long term storage
67
What is sensory memory?
"split second" holding tank for all info If you pay attention to sensory memory = short-term memory
68
What is iconic memory?
Visual Duration: <1sec Capacity: ≤ 20 items Level of awareness: Preconscious & unconscious
69
What is echoic memory?
Auditory Duration: <3sec Capacity: 1-2 items Level of awareness: Preconscious & unconscious
70
What is short-term memory (STM)?
holds info briefly (~30 sec) selective attention = needed for info to be transferred frm sensory to STM) Working memory = processes info in STM
71
How to improve STM?
Chunking: combine info into meaningful chunks to improve STM capacity = dec memory load Rehearsal: repeat bits of info in one's hear to maintain it in STM - susceptible to interference
72
What is long term memory (LTM)?
relatively permanent & limitless memory storage
73
What does elaborate rehearsal do?
Transfer info frm STM to LTM through meaningful connections
74
What are the LTM types?
1. Explicit/Declarative 2. Implicit/Non-declarative
75
What is Explicit/Declarative LTM?
conscious recall of factual info - Semantic memory: general knowledge - Episodic memory: personal recollections Emotion & sleep facilitate Exposure to acute stress = enhances declarative memory consolidation
76
What is Implicit/Non-declarative LTM?
does not require conscious recall, but implicit in actions - Procedural memory = motor skills & habit (e..g driving) - Conditioned memory = automatic conditioned responses - Priming = retrieval based on earlier experience
77
Slide 45 for LTM overview
HAVE YOU LOOKED AT IT???
78
How is LTM organised?
oragnised by related meanings & concepts for fast retrieval - Semantic network model - Parallel distributed processing model
79
- Semantic network model - Parallel distributed processing model
- Semantic network model: info stored in connected fashion (related concepts closely located = hierarchal manner) - Parallel distributed processing model: simultaneous. access of connected info across multiple networks (many types of processing occurs at once)
80
What is retrieval?
process of accessing info stored in LTM
81
What are retrieval cues?
Prompts to rmb stored info 1. Priming 2. Context- dependent 3. State-dependent
82
Priming = retrieval cues
often UNCONSCIOUSLY activation of particular assoc. in memory
83
Context-dependent = retrieval cues
memory improves when in location similar to when memory was formed
84
State-dependent = retrieval cues
memory improves due to being in a mood/state similar to when memory was formed
85
What are the two types of retrieval for LTM?
1. Recall 2. Recognition
86
What is recall (memory)?
Retrieve info not currently in conscious awareness but learnt previously (e.g. essay) - harder than recognition
87
What are some recall issues?
1. Tip of the tongue = being aware of knowing smth & confident of being able to rmb it eventually, but cannot retrieve it right now Overcome = ignore this qn & do smth else first then go back = unconsciously still trying to figure out the qn while consciously working on another qn 2. serial position effect = tendency to recall first items (primacy effect) & last items (recency effect) more easily (long list of info)
88
What is recognition?
identifying items previously learnt from a list (e.g. MCQ)
89
What is a recognition issue?
False positive - falsely recognising some stimulus that is not actlly in memory
90
What is constructive processing?
retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered, revised, influenced by newer info processes that allow our memories to be influenced by the meaning that we attach to moments or events (e.g. you hear the word dog, you will use knowledge/memory to create a pic of a dog in your head)
91
What is hindsight bias?
tendency to believe after learning an outcome that one would have foreseen it I KNEW IT ALL ALONG
92
LTM Reconstruction: Misinformation effect False memory syndrome
Misinformation effect - incorporation of inaccurate info into actual memory False memory syndrome - creation of inaccurate memories usually through SUGGESTION OF OTHERS
93
What is organic amnesia?
Physical damage to brain = dz, accident, surgery, drugs = cause memory loss
94
What is retrograde amnesia?
loss of memory for events that occurred BEFORE the injury/onset of dz
95
What is anterograde amnesia?
Inability to form new memories AFTER injury/onset of dz
96
What is Alzheimer's dz?
irreversible, progressive brain disorder; slowly destroys memory & thinking skills; eventually destroys ability to carry out simple tasks - starts as anterograde amnesia but can progress to retrograde amnesia - 1 in 4 diagnosed - no cure; have drugs for slowing/stopping progression
97
What are the risk factors for Alzheimer's dz?
1. inc cholesterol 2. inc BP 3. smoking 4. obesity 5. Type II diabetes
98
What is infantile amnesia?
inability to rmb clearly/accurately the first years of life (before 3 y/o) - relates to explicit memories - attributed to = cognitive abilities needed for encoding events for LTM X fully developed
99
What is psychogenic amnesia?
loss of memory & important personal information DUE TO TRAUMATIC EVENT e.g. childhood abuse, witness murder - brain blocks ability to recall event - no physiological basis for disruption (NOT ORGANIC) - retrograde amnesia
100
What is needed for a healthy memory?
1. Sleep : deprivation severely interferes w hippocampal function & memo; new info better consolidated while zzz 2. Diet: food rich in - omega-3 fatty acids: help memory cells communicate - antioxidants - vitamin B 3. Exercise - improves learning & mental performance - high cardiovascular activity = inc verbal memo - inc aerobic trng = inc brain connectivity - prevent & treat amnesia, Alzheimer's, brain aging - reduce stress, depression, anxiety
101
Techniques for memory
1. rehears & test new material 2. make material meaningful (form stories = enhance encoding & consolidate processes) 3. activate retrieval cues to jog memory 4. use mnemonics (chunking, acronyms, rhymes) 5. minimise interference (study before sleep) 6. interleaving (avoid back to back stud of same subjects

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