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Psych > The brain & the mind PART 2 > Flashcards

The brain & the mind PART 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is thinking?

A

mental activities that go on in the brain when processing, organising, understanding, communicating info to others

any mental functions assumed to be involved in:
- acquisition
- storage
- interpretation
- manipulation
- transformation
- use of knowledge

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2
Q

What is problem solving?

A

Cognitive process of brain at higher cognitive layer that searches a solution for a given problem/finds a path to reach a given goal

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3
Q

What is decision making?

A

cognitive process of choosing b/w 2 or more alternatives

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4
Q

What are the strategies to understand decision making?

A
  1. statistical analysis of multiple decisions involving complex tasks (e.g. projecting rate of success or level of riskiness)
  2. experimental manipulation of simple decisions
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5
Q

What are the types of problem solving methods?

A
  1. trial & error (strategy based)
  2. algorithm (strategy based)
  3. heuristic (strategy based)
  4. insight
  5. intuition
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6
Q

What is the algorithm problem solving method?

A

methodical, step-by-step procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

SLOWER but MORE ACCURATE than heuristic

e.g. math formula

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7
Q

What is heuristic problem solving method?

A

rule of thumb = judgemental shortcuts; based on prior experiences = suggests course of action w/o guaranteeing an optimal solution

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8
Q

List the 4 types of heuristic problem solving method.

A
  1. Representativeness
  2. Availability
  3. Working backward
  4. Sub-goals
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9
Q

What is representativeness heuristic?

A

rule of thumb for judging the probability of membership in a category = based on how well an object/person is representative of that category

basically grouping them into a category (stereotype)

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10
Q

What is there a tendency for in representativeness heuristic?

A

Tendency to overgeneralise from few characteristics/observations

–> stereotype (e.g. someone wearing suit & tie & carry briefcase = might think they are a lawyer = bc they look like the stereotype of a lawyer)

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11
Q

What are the disadvantages of heuristic problem solving?

A

Less accurate but faster prob solving method
Often influenced by errors & biases = affect quality of decision

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12
Q

What is availability heuristic?

A

est. the frequency/likelihood of an event based on immediate examples that come to mind = if smth can be recalled means its impt

the more available & relevant the info there is, the more likely the event is judged to be more likely to happen

basically, e.g. you see a lot of new on plane crashes = you rely on this info = decide/think that plane crashes are more likely than they actlly are

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13
Q

What is working backward heuristics?

A

attempting to solve a prob by working from the goal backward to the starting goal

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14
Q

What is sub-goals heuristics?

A

breaking larger prob into smaller, more manageable goals
as each sub-goal is achieved = final solution is closer

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15
Q

What is insight?

A

“aha!” moment = sudden realisation of prob’s solution
CONTRASTS w strategy based solutions (bc insight has NO precursors leading to sol.)

note: sleep might facilitate insight = bc sleep restructures knowledge & brings out details of novel nature

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16
Q

What is intuition?

A

“gut feeling”
effortless, immediate, automatic feeling/thought
CONTRASTS w explicit, conscious reasoning

Product of brain processing automatically compared to perceived elements of current experience w past experience & knowledge = delivered to awareness w emotional certainty

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17
Q

What are the problem solving barriers?

A
  1. Functional fixedness
  2. Mental set
  3. Confirmation bias
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18
Q

What is functional fixedness?

A

fixated on thinking abt objects only in terms of their typical functions resulting in MENTAL BLOCK

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19
Q

How to overcome functional fixedness?

A

think of all ways to make use of the same objects

e.g. lockdown; ppl who like to go gym but cannot = creative = turn furnitures/everyday things into weights/to use

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20
Q

What is mental set?

A

tendency to solve problems using approaches that worked previously for similar problems

BUT not useful when prob requires new approach

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21
Q

What is confirmation bias?

A

tendency to favour info that confirms one’s existing beliefs/theories, while IGNORING contradicting evidence

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22
Q

What are the types of thinking?

A
  1. convergent thinking
  2. divergent thinking
  3. creative thinking (similar to divergent)
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23
Q

What is convergent thinking?

A

all thinking pointed to one solution (prob solving)

uses linear logical steps to analyse already formulated sol. to determine correct one

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24
Q

What is divergent thinking?

A

generating more than one sol. (creative thinking; aka lateral thinking)

uses strategies that deviate frm commonly used/prev. thought strategies

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25
Q

What is creative thinking?

A

combi of flexibility in thinking & reorganisation of understanding to prod. innovative ideas & new sol.

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26
Q

How to stim. divergent thinking?

A

brainstorming
keep a journal
freewriting
mind/subject mapping

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27
Q

What is reasoning?

A

purposeful mental activity that involves drawing conclusions frm observations, facts/assumptions

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28
Q

What are the types of reasoning (3 points)?

A
  1. formal reasoning
  2. informal reasoning
  3. reflective judgement
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29
Q

What is formal reasoning?

A

aka deductive reasoning
- algorithms & formal logic
- prob w one (best) sol.
e.g. mcq exam

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30
Q

What is informal reasoning?

A

aka dialectical reasoning
- heuristics
- prob often w no single correct sol. that require evaluation of opposing POV

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31
Q

What is reflective judgement?

A

critical thinking

ability to evaluate & integrate evidence, consider alt. interpretations & reach a defensible conclusion
directed prob-focused thinking

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32
Q

What is inductive reasoning?

A
  • inferences & general principles are drawn frm specific observations & cases
  • typical scientific research
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33
Q

What is deductive reasoning?

A
  • conclusion is shown to follow frm a series of premises = if preceding premise is true = conclusion CANNOT be wrong

e.g. All dogs have ears, golden retrievers are dogs, therefore they have ears

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34
Q

What is intelligence?

A

ability to:
- learn from experience
- acquire knowledge
- act purposefully
- adapt to new situations

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35
Q

What are the 3 influential theories of intelligence?

A
  1. Spearman’s General Intelligence Factor (g factor)
  2. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
  3. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
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36
Q

What is social intelligence?

A

knowledge in social situations & self management

basically, understand ppl & effectively relate to them

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37
Q

Abstract intelligence & Concrete intelligence

A

Abstract
- ability to think in terms of abstract concepts

Concrete
- ability to understand & manipulate objects

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38
Q

What is an intelligence test?

A

assess person’s mental abilities in comparison to others (age-peers)
- solve prob
- acquire. details
- form concepts, etc

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39
Q

Most influential intelligence tests

A
  1. Mental Ability Test
  2. Stanford-Binet Test
  3. Wechsler Tests (Adult, Children, Preschool & Primary)
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40
Q

How is intelligence measured?

A
  1. Chronological age (CA) = age lor
  2. Mental age (MA) = measure of intelligence test performance; the age that your performance is at (e.g. perform as well as an 8 y/o = mental age of 8
  3. Intelligence Quotient (QA) = ratio of MA to CA multiplied by 100

IQ = MA/CA x 100

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41
Q

What is the Stanford-Binet test?

A

2 y/o - 59 y/o

  • Score of 100 is average (IQ score)
  • assess verbal & nonverbal
  • comprise of 10 subtests = reasoning (verbal, quantitative, visual/abstract) & memory (short-term)
42
Q

What are the Wechsler tests?

A

16 y/o - 90 y/o

age-based intelligence tests
WAIS: adults
WISC: children
WPPSI: preschool children

  • comprises of 10 subtests
  • 4 index scores: Verbal comprehension, Perceptual reasoning, Working memory, Processing speed
43
Q

What are the 3 criteria intelligence tests must meet?

A
  1. Standardisation
  2. Reliability
  3. Validity
44
Q

What is standardisation?

A

implied uniformity of procedure in administering & scoring test in large grps of ppl

  • most intelligence tests follow a normal curve = bell-shaped curve
45
Q

What is reliability?

A

test produces same results each time given to same people
free of random error

46
Q

What is validity?

A

test measures what it’s supposed to measure/predict

47
Q

How useful are IQ tests?

A
  • Usually valid for predicting academic success & job performance
  • Identifies ppl who DIFFER GREATLY frm those of average intelligence
  • Neuropsychology = head injury, learning disabilities, disorders
48
Q

How to assess validity & significance of any test?

A

Look at the score of the 2 extremes of the normal curve

49
Q

What is the low intelligence extreme?

A

Intellectual disability
- deficits in mental ability (IQ<70) & adaptive behaviour

Causes of developmental delay:
- chromosome/genetic disorders (e.g. down syndrome, etc)
- deprived env.
- drug & alcohol
- dietary deficiencies

50
Q

What is the high intelligence extreme?

A

Giftedness
- IQ ≥ 130 (top 2%)
- geniuses: IQ ≥. 140
- Generally guarantees success
- Typically develop into well-adjusted adults (UNLESS pushed to achieve at young age & may have vv little social interaction)

  • Geniuses: some social & behavioural adjustment probs
51
Q

Nature vs Nurture in intelligence

A

Usually 50:50

  • IQ heritability est. at 0.50 (experience involved)
  • Flynn effect = IQ scores steadily inc. over time in modern countries
52
Q

Ethnicity & IQ

A

X significant r/s

53
Q

What are some environmental influences on intelligence?

A
  1. poor prenatal care
  2. malnutrition
  3. exposure to toxins
  4. stressful family circumstances
  5. living in an impoverished & disadvantaged neighbourhoods (SES)
54
Q

Intellectual performance is strongly influenced by:

A

motivation
self-discipline

cultural expectations, attitudes towards edu, beliefs about origins of mental abilities

55
Q

When is the critical period for language development?

A

2-7 y/o
Child learning 2nd language <7 y/o will have X accent

56
Q

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

A

(Whorf hypothesis)

language controls the development of thought processes & concepts

structure of language affects speakers’ worldview/cognition

Basically, the language you speak affects how you think about the world

57
Q

Cognitive universalism

A

concepts are universal & influence development of language

58
Q

language & thought interplay

A

thinking ↔ language

59
Q

What is cognitive fitness?

A

state of optimised ability to reason, rmb, learn, plan, adapt

60
Q

What is memory?

A

active system that encodes info received frm senses, organises & stores info & retrieves it when required

61
Q

What are the 3 processes of memory?

A
  1. Encoding: transform incoming info (sensory input) = form that can be stored
  2. Storage: hold info until needed
  3. Retrieval: locate stored info in memory & getting it out so can be used
62
Q

What are the 3 main models of memory?

A
  1. Information Processing Model
  2. Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) model
  3. Levels-of-Processing Model
63
Q

What is the information processing model?

A

info for storage is processed in series of 3 stages

64
Q

What is the parallel distributed processing (PDP) model?

A

simultaneous processing of info across multiple neural networks

65
Q

What is the levels-of-processing model?

A

info is processed according to its meaning; deeper level of processing = longer retention

66
Q

Look at slide 39 of lecture 2 (week 8) the brain & the mind part 2

  1. What happens when selective attention doesn’t happen?
  2. What happens w/o maintenance rehearsal?
  3. What happens w/o consolidation?
A
  1. sensory memory is lost
  2. short term memory is lost
  3. short term memo will not be converted to long term storage
67
Q

What is sensory memory?

A

“split second” holding tank for all info

If you pay attention to sensory memory = short-term memory

68
Q

What is iconic memory?

A

Visual

Duration: <1sec
Capacity: ≤ 20 items
Level of awareness: Preconscious & unconscious

69
Q

What is echoic memory?

A

Auditory

Duration: <3sec
Capacity: 1-2 items
Level of awareness: Preconscious & unconscious

70
Q

What is short-term memory (STM)?

A

holds info briefly (~30 sec)
selective attention = needed for info to be transferred frm sensory to STM)
Working memory = processes info in STM

71
Q

How to improve STM?

A

Chunking: combine info into meaningful chunks to improve STM capacity = dec memory load

Rehearsal: repeat bits of info in one’s hear to maintain it in STM
- susceptible to interference

72
Q

What is long term memory (LTM)?

A

relatively permanent & limitless memory storage

73
Q

What does elaborate rehearsal do?

A

Transfer info frm STM to LTM through meaningful connections

74
Q

What are the LTM types?

A
  1. Explicit/Declarative
  2. Implicit/Non-declarative
75
Q

What is Explicit/Declarative LTM?

A

conscious recall of factual info
- Semantic memory: general knowledge
- Episodic memory: personal recollections

Emotion & sleep facilitate
Exposure to acute stress = enhances declarative memory consolidation

76
Q

What is Implicit/Non-declarative LTM?

A

does not require conscious recall, but implicit in actions

  • Procedural memory = motor skills & habit (e..g driving)
  • Conditioned memory = automatic conditioned responses
  • Priming = retrieval based on earlier experience
77
Q

Slide 45 for LTM overview

A

HAVE YOU LOOKED AT IT???

78
Q

How is LTM organised?

A

oragnised by related meanings & concepts for fast retrieval

  • Semantic network model
  • Parallel distributed processing model
79
Q
  • Semantic network model
  • Parallel distributed processing model
A
  • Semantic network model: info stored in connected fashion (related concepts closely located = hierarchal manner)
  • Parallel distributed processing model: simultaneous. access of connected info across multiple networks (many types of processing occurs at once)
80
Q

What is retrieval?

A

process of accessing info stored in LTM

81
Q

What are retrieval cues?

A

Prompts to rmb stored info

  1. Priming
  2. Context- dependent
  3. State-dependent
82
Q

Priming = retrieval cues

A

often UNCONSCIOUSLY
activation of particular assoc. in memory

83
Q

Context-dependent = retrieval cues

A

memory improves when in location similar to when memory was formed

84
Q

State-dependent = retrieval cues

A

memory improves due to being in a mood/state similar to when memory was formed

85
Q

What are the two types of retrieval for LTM?

A
  1. Recall
  2. Recognition
86
Q

What is recall (memory)?

A

Retrieve info not currently in conscious awareness but learnt previously (e.g. essay)

  • harder than recognition
87
Q

What are some recall issues?

A
  1. Tip of the tongue = being aware of knowing smth & confident of being able to rmb it eventually, but cannot retrieve it right now

Overcome = ignore this qn & do smth else first then go back = unconsciously still trying to figure out the qn while consciously working on another qn

  1. serial position effect = tendency to recall first items (primacy effect) & last items (recency effect) more easily (long list of info)
88
Q

What is recognition?

A

identifying items previously learnt from a list (e.g. MCQ)

89
Q

What is a recognition issue?

A

False positive
- falsely recognising some stimulus that is not actlly in memory

90
Q

What is constructive processing?

A

retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered, revised, influenced by newer info

processes that allow our memories to be influenced by the meaning that we attach to moments or events (e.g. you hear the word dog, you will use knowledge/memory to create a pic of a dog in your head)

91
Q

What is hindsight bias?

A

tendency to believe after learning an outcome that one would have foreseen it

I KNEW IT ALL ALONG

92
Q

LTM Reconstruction:
Misinformation effect
False memory syndrome

A

Misinformation effect
- incorporation of inaccurate info into actual memory

False memory syndrome
- creation of inaccurate memories usually through SUGGESTION OF OTHERS

93
Q

What is organic amnesia?

A

Physical damage to brain = dz, accident, surgery, drugs = cause memory loss

94
Q

What is retrograde amnesia?

A

loss of memory for events that occurred BEFORE the injury/onset of dz

95
Q

What is anterograde amnesia?

A

Inability to form new memories AFTER injury/onset of dz

96
Q

What is Alzheimer’s dz?

A

irreversible, progressive brain disorder; slowly destroys memory & thinking skills; eventually destroys ability to carry out simple tasks

  • starts as anterograde amnesia but can progress to retrograde amnesia
  • 1 in 4 diagnosed
  • no cure; have drugs for slowing/stopping progression
97
Q

What are the risk factors for Alzheimer’s dz?

A
  1. inc cholesterol
  2. inc BP
  3. smoking
  4. obesity
  5. Type II diabetes
98
Q

What is infantile amnesia?

A

inability to rmb clearly/accurately the first years of life (before 3 y/o)
- relates to explicit memories
- attributed to = cognitive abilities needed for encoding events for LTM X fully developed

99
Q

What is psychogenic amnesia?

A

loss of memory & important personal information DUE TO TRAUMATIC EVENT
e.g. childhood abuse, witness murder

  • brain blocks ability to recall event
  • no physiological basis for disruption (NOT ORGANIC)
  • retrograde amnesia
100
Q

What is needed for a healthy memory?

A
  1. Sleep : deprivation severely interferes w hippocampal function & memo; new info better consolidated while zzz
  2. Diet: food rich in
    - omega-3 fatty acids: help memory cells communicate
    - antioxidants
    - vitamin B
  3. Exercise
    - improves learning & mental performance
    - high cardiovascular activity = inc verbal memo
    - inc aerobic trng = inc brain connectivity
    - prevent & treat amnesia, Alzheimer’s, brain aging
    - reduce stress, depression, anxiety
101
Q

Techniques for memory

A
  1. rehears & test new material
  2. make material meaningful (form stories = enhance encoding & consolidate processes)
  3. activate retrieval cues to jog memory
  4. use mnemonics (chunking, acronyms, rhymes)
  5. minimise interference (study before sleep)
  6. interleaving (avoid back to back stud of same subjects

Psych (7 decks)

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