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The environment Flashcards

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1
Q

What is learning?

A

process of acquiring new & relatively enduring info/behaviour
- includes behaviour change resulting from experience/practice

When ppl learn anything, some part of their brain is physically changed to record what was learnt

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2
Q

Social cognition in learning

A

learning includes changes in behaviour & changes in thoughts, expectations & knowledge
- these influence behaviour in a reciprocal process

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3
Q

Behaviourism in learning

A

learning is the result of observable acts & events, excl mental processes

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4
Q

What is conditioning?

A

theory that states behaviours can be modified/learned based on a stimulus & a response

process of learning assoc. (associative learning) = link events that occur close tgt

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5
Q

What are the two types of conditioning?

A
  1. Classical conditioning = assoc. b/w 2 stimuli & a response
  2. Operant conditioning = assoc. b/w response & consequence
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6
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a behaviour

E.g. dog see food –> dog salivate; if ring bell (neutral stimulus) & give food –> salivate; eventually dog assoc. ring bell w food so just ringing the bell will cause dog to salivate

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7
Q

What is:
unconditioned stimulus (US)
unconditioned response (UR)

A

US: stimulus that triggers a response w/o additional learning

UR: response triggered by US w/o additional learning

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8
Q

What is:
conditioned stimulus (CS)
conditioned response (CR)

A

CS: an initially neutral stimulus triggers a CR, when paired with US
(note: CS & neutral stimulus are essentially the same thing)

CR: response triggered by CS

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9
Q

What must occur for the CS & US for classical conditioning to take place?

A
  1. CS must come BEFORE US
  2. CS & US must occur VERY CLOSE tgt in time (< 5s)
  3. CS must be paired w US MANY TIMES
  4. CS must be DISTINCT frm other competing stimuli
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10
Q

List the features of classical conditioning (5 points)

A
  1. Generalisation
  2. Discrimination
  3. Extinction
  4. Spontaneous Recovery
  5. Higher-Order Conditioning
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11
Q

What is generalisation (classical conditioning features)?

A

tendency to respond to stimulus that is similar to CS –> trigger similar response

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12
Q

What is discrimination (classical conditioning features)?

A

learn to distinguish b/w a CS & other irrelevant stimuli & respond differently

basically, can tell which is the CS and which is not

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13
Q

What is extinction (classical conditioning features)?

A

extinguishing the CR by repeatedly presenting the CS in the absence of the US

basically, now you keep showing the CS w/o US, then the CR eventually disappear

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14
Q

What is spontaneous recovery (classical conditioning features)?

A

reappearance of EXTINGUISHED CR after a pause

basically, you see smth, then the CR come back

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15
Q

What is higher-order conditioning (classical conditioning features)?

A

the CS paired w new neutral stimulus creating a new (weaker) CS

e.g. you get stung by wasp, then you see lots of wasps in the trash can, then later on you see trash can & have slight fear response

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16
Q

What are some classical conditioning applications?

A
  1. Learning to like - +ve emotional responses (for CS) to certain objects/events (US)
  2. Learning to fear - pair US w a stimulus that elicits pain/surprise/embarrassment
  3. Acquired tastes: likes/dislikes for certain foods/odours
  4. React to medical treatments
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17
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

aka instrumental conditioning

the process by which a response becomes more likely/less likely to occur –> depends on consequences

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18
Q

A response (operant) is influenced by:

A
  1. Reinforcement: strengthens response/make it more likely to happen
  2. Punishment: weakens response/make it less likely to recur
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19
Q

What are primary reinforcers?

A

innately reinforcing stimulus satisfying biological needs

natural & X depend on learning to become desirable

(“UR”)

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20
Q

What are secondary reinforcers?

A

stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its assoc. w a primary reinforcer

(“CS”)

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21
Q

What is positive reinforcement?

A

Response is followed by presentation/inc in intensity of a pleasurable stimulus –> response becomes stronger/more likely to occur

e.g. praise/direct reward

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22
Q

What is negative reinforcement?

A

Response is followed by removal, delay, dec. in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus –> response become stronger/more likely to happen

rmb, reinforcement means response will become stronger/more likely!!

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23
Q

How does reinforcement schedules play a part?

A

Reinforcement schedule –> pattern that defines how often a desired response will be influenced (e.g. every 5 qns)

Reinforcement timing –> influences speed of learning, strengthens learned response & behaviour pattern (e.g. every hour)

continuous: every time; quick learning
partial: only sometimes; slower but longer lasting learning

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24
Q

look at slide 24 of part 1 of the environment

overview of schedules of reinforcement

A

look at it
LOOK AT IT NOW

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25
Q

What is punishment?

A

process by which a stimulus/event weakens the response/make it less likely to occur

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26
Q

What are the punishment types?

A

Punishment by application (+ve punishment) = smth UNPLEASANT follows the response

Punishment by removal (-ve punishment) = smth PLEASANT is removed

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27
Q

look at slide 26 of part 1 of the environment

overview of reinforcement & punishment

A

have you LOOKED AT IT??????

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28
Q

What are the features of operant conditioning?

A
  1. Extinction
  2. Generalisation
  3. Discrimination
  4. Instinctive Drift
  5. Shaping
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29
Q

What is extinction (operant conditioning)?

A

behaviour is X followed by the consequence that reinforced it (reinforcer stops = behaviour stops)

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30
Q

What is generalisation (operant conditioning)?

A

response reinforced/punished in presence off one stimulus is also done in the presence of a similar stimulus

e.g. you know to open the door when the doorbell rings, you will also answer the door if the doorbell rings but with a different sound

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31
Q

What is instinctive drift (operant conditioning)?

A

tendency to revert to instinctive behaviour (bio constraint)

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32
Q

What is discrimination (operant conditioning)?

A

response occurs in presence of one stimulus but not in presence of similar ones that differ from i

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33
Q

What is shaping (operant conditioning)?

A

reinforcing small steps/each successive approximation until desired behaviour occurs

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34
Q

Application of operant conditioning

A

Behaviour modification –> use operant conditioning techniques = teach new resp/reduce/eliminate problematic behaviour

E.g. hospital:
Children w autism –> improve communication skills
brain damage –> train to control inappropriate behaviours

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35
Q

What are the problems with punishment?

A
  1. inappropriate administration –> harsh methods
  2. harsh/frequent = anxiety/fear/anger
  3. effectiveness is temp & dependent on presence of punisher
  4. hard to punish immediately
  5. X instruct what person should do
  6. may be reinforcing bc it brings attention
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36
Q

What are some problems with reward?

A
  1. often misused –> give indiscriminately = unrelated to desired behaviour
  2. there may be more focus on rewards instead of the purpose of the action (do smth for the reward instead of e.g. joy/learn smth)
  3. effectiveness depends on: initial motivation, context in which rewards are achieved & sincerity of person giving praisee
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37
Q

What is the biological predisposition of. learning?

A

predispose organisms to learn assoc. that enhance survival

(e.g. babies assoc fear w snakes & spiders more easily than guns; bc guns are evolutionary novel)

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38
Q

What is latent learning?

A

learning occurs but X shown until person demonstrates it

suggests that learning happens even w/o reinforcement & is X apparent

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39
Q

What is insight learning?

A

all of a sudden learning by understanding r/s of various parts of the problem, rather than trial & error

  • unconscious cognitive processes happening in background
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40
Q

What is learned helplessness?

A

tendency to fail to act due to past history of repeated failures

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41
Q

What is observational learning?

A

process. in which an individual learns new responses by observing the behaviour of another (instead of through direct experience)

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42
Q

What are the 4 elements of observational learning?

A
  1. Attention
  2. Retention
  3. Reproduction
  4. Motivation
43
Q

Look at slide 34 of the environment part 1

overview of factors that influence learning

A

look at it PLEASE

44
Q

What is social psycholgy?

A

scientific study of how a person’s thoughts, feelings & behaviour are influenced by social groups (real, imagined, implied)

45
Q

What are the main areas of social psychology?

A
  1. social cognition (thinking)
  2. social influence
  3. social interaction (r/s)
46
Q

What is social cognition?

A

how ppl think about other ppl & how these thoughts influence behaviour towards them

47
Q

What is social influence?

A

the ways in which a person’s behaviour can be affected by the presence of others

48
Q

What is social interaction?

A

+ve & -ve aspects of ppl relating to others

49
Q

look at slide 4 of the environment part 2

overview of social psych

A

look.

50
Q

What is social influence?

A

behaviour is intentionally/unintentionally INFLUENCED by others

51
Q

What are the major factors affecting social influence?

A
  1. Conformity
    - groupthink
  2. Group behaviour
  3. Compliance (power)
  4. Obedience (authority)
52
Q

What is conformity?

A

comply w social pressures
- change in one’s opinions to match that of other ppl –> result of real/imagined. pressure from others

53
Q

Why do people conform?

A

Normative influence = need to feel approved (esp. if they have similar characteristics of group members)

Informational influence = need for info; other’s behaviour provides info on how to act in ambiguous situations

54
Q

What are some factors that increase conformity?

A

When:
- made to feel incompetent/insecure
- in a group where everyone agrees
- you admire group’s status & attractiveness
- you have not made prior commitment to a response
- you know others in group will observe your behaviour
- from a culture that strongly encourages respect for social standards
- task is difficult

55
Q

What is groupthink?

A

extreme form of conformity
- people within the group feel it’s more impt to maintain group unity rather than critically evaluate facts when making decisions = faulty decisions

56
Q

What does groupthink lead to?

A
  • Faulty decisions
  • Illusion of invulnerability
  • self-censorship (lack of disagreements)
  • pressure on skeptics to conform
  • Illusion of unanimity = self-deception & insularity
57
Q

What is group polarisation?

A

if group is like-minded = discussion strengthens its prevailing opinions = make more extreme decisions (compared to indivs not in discussion)

basically, they reinforce e/o opinions, whether +ve/-ve

58
Q

What is social facilitation?

A

+ve influence of others on performance if task perceived as easy

e.g. if simple task, someone watching you = you do better

59
Q

What is social impairment?

A

-ve influence of others on performance if task perceived as difficult

e.g. if difficult task, someone watching you = you do worse (I THINK???)

60
Q

What is social loafing?

A

people X work as hard when in group than indiv = easy to hide in group

61
Q

What is deindividuation?

A

loss of awareness of one’s own individuality in groups/crowds

Increases:
- grp gets bigger
- grp members wear masks/uniforms
- destructiveness/helpfulness depends on cultural norms

62
Q

What is compliance?

A

doing what you are asked; change in one’s behaviour REQUESTED by another person/group (no real authority/power)

63
Q

Compliance vs obedience

A

compliance: do what you’re ASKED; usually asked by person/group of no real authority

obedience: do what you’re TOLD; usually told by someone of authority

64
Q

What are some compliance techniques?

A
  1. Foot-in-the-door technique: start w small requests then the bigger one
  2. Door-in-the-face technique: start with initial (unlikely to be done) request, get rejected, then smaller request
  3. Lowball technique: once commitment made, cost inc (make offer vv attractive, this induces acceptance, then you intro the less favourable terms)
65
Q

What is obedience?

A

Following orders = change in one’s behaviour at the COMMAND of an authority behaviour

  • Potential to be highly destructive & ethnically questionable
66
Q

How likely are ppl too obey authority even when they know that obedience can harm someone else?

A

~65%

67
Q

What is social thinking based on?

A
  1. Attitudes
  2. Impressions (formation + maintenance)
  3. Attributions (personal perception, social influence, etc)
68
Q

What are attitudes?

A

evaluations that predisposes us to respond +vely/-vely to ppl, objects, ideas, situations

often poor predictors of behaviour
may be implicit (unconscious)/explicit (conscious)

69
Q

What are the 3 components of attitude?

A
  1. Affective (feelings = how you feel)
  2. Behavioural (response tendencies = what you do)
  3. Cognitive (what you believe)
70
Q

What are the factors influencing attitude formation?

A
  1. direct contact w person/situation/object/idea (experience)
  2. interaction w other ppl who hold a certain attitude
  3. direct instruction (parents, others)
  4. observational learning = watch others’ actions & rxns
71
Q

What is persuasion?

A

Attitude change = process by which person’s attitudes/behaviour are influenced by communications from others

72
Q

What are the key elements of persuasion?

A
  1. source of message (communicator - e.g. charismatic)
  2. actual message (clear & well-organised)
  3. target audience (audience profile)
  4. medium (method of comm - speech, post, etc)
73
Q

What is cognitive dissonance?

A

discomfort experienced when behaviour is inconsistent w personal cognitions

74
Q

How do people reduce cognitive dissonance?

A
  1. Changing conflicting behaviour
  2. changing conflicting cognition
  3. developing new cognitions to justify behaviour

e.g. smoker receives message frm HPB saying smoking bad for health = lung cancer
Smoker will:
1. stop smoking
2. refuse to believe smoking = lung cancer
3. believe that his health is diff from others bc his relatives who smoke X lung cancer

75
Q

What is social categrisation?

A

automatic & unconscious categorisation of people into particular group –> based on characteristics (e.g. race, age)

  • based on Implicit Personality Theory = sets of assumptions abt how certain traits are linked to other characteristics/behaviours (e.g. learn that someone is very happy, might assume that they are also friendly/kind)
76
Q

What is attribution?

A

process by which we explain our own behaviour & behaviour of others

77
Q

Situational attribution

A

cause of behaviour due to external factors = delay, action of others, aspect of situation

e.g. man helps otters cross road bc the traffic was busy

78
Q

Dispositional attribution

A

Cause of behaviour due to internal factors = personality, character

e.g. man helps otters cross road bc man is kindW

79
Q

What is fundamental attribution error?

A

tendency to overest. the influence of person’s internal (dispositional) characteristics on behaviour & underest. external (situational) factors

e.g. coworker late = attribute this to coworker being unreliable (dispositional) instead of bad traffic (situational)

80
Q

What does social interaction comprise of?

A

Antisocial relations = prejudice & discrimination; aggression

Prosocial relations (socially desirable behaviour) = attraction; altruism

81
Q

What is prejudice?

A

prejudgement based on unsupported & -ve stereotypes abt members of a social group (e.g. age/ethnicity)

82
Q

What does prejudice comprise of?

A
  1. Beliefs (stereotypes) = more cognitive
  2. Emotions (e.g. hostility/fear)
  3. Predisposition to action (act on the prejudice = discrimination)
83
Q

What is discrimination?

A

unjustifiable -ve behaviour towards a grp & its members due to prejudice

84
Q

Prejudice vs Discrimination

A

Prejudice = attitude/feeling
Discrimination = action

85
Q

What are the types of prejudice?

A

Explicit = conscious (even if X publicly expressed)

Implicit = non consciously

86
Q

What are the causes of prejudice?

A
  1. Psychological causes (deflects feelings of anxiety, simplify problems = scapegoat)
  2. Social causes (pressure frm friends/family/others)
  3. Economic causes (justifies group’s economic interests & legitimises war)
  4. Cultural & national causes (bonds ppl to their own grp)
87
Q

What are the theories of prejudice?

A
  1. Social cognitive theory
  2. Realistic conflict theory
  3. Social identity theory
88
Q

How does social cognitive theory relate to prejudice?

A

prejudice = attitude formed through cognitive processes (e.g. observing, modelling, formation of schemas) in relation to understanding social world

89
Q

How does realistic conflict theory relate to prejudice?

A

inc degree of conflict b/w in-group & out-group seeking common resources = compete

90
Q

How does social identity theory relate to prejudice?

A

3 processes –> categorisation, identification, comparison –> responsible for formation of person’s identity in a social group

influences self-perception & self-esteem = identify strongly w group

91
Q

How to overcome prejudices?

A

prejudice unavoidable bc will always have diff groups

  1. both sides must have equal legal status, economic standing, power
  2. authorities & institutions provide moral, legal & economic support for both sides
  3. opportunities to work & socialise w e/o
  4. cooperate, work tgt for common goal
92
Q

What is aggression?

A

Any behaviour (verbal/physical) intended to harm someone physically/emotionally

Stems frm interaction of biology & experience (psycho & socio-cultural)

93
Q

Relation b/w biology & aggression

A

Fghting instinct for survival
Partly attributed to genetics
Triggered by variations in brain function –> amygdala activation
Internal/external chemical influences (testosterone/alcohol)

94
Q

How does experience relate to aggression?

A

Human aggression is influenced by learning:
Social learning theory = aggressive behaviour learnt through observation of others

Adopting social role (e.g. soldier) = inc in aggressive behaviour

Exposure to violent media (movies/video games) = inc physical & verbal aggression

95
Q

What is attraction?

A

liking or having the desire for a r/s w another

Based on:
- physical attraction
- Proximity
- Similarity
- Reciprocity

96
Q

What does the love triangle consist of?

A
  1. intimacy = feelings of closeness/connectedness/bond
  2. passion = romance/physical attraction/sexual consummation
  3. commitment = cognitive aspects; decision making process
97
Q

What are the three types of love?

A
  1. romantic: intimacy & passion
  2. companionate: intimacy & commitment
  3. consummate: intimacy, passion, commitment
98
Q

What is altruism?

A
  • socially desirable behaviour
  • benefits others w/o expectation of reward, even at own risk
  • related to the presence of others
99
Q

What is the bystander effect?

A

presence of others has an effect on the decision to help/not
- help less likely if more ppl

100
Q

What may the bystander effect be due to?

A

Diffusion of responsibility
- X take responsibility/action due to presence of others who are perceived to share responsibility

May also X do anth to avoid being blamed

May X do anth bc they think X serious since others not helping also

101
Q

Can look at slide 36 of the environment part 2 for the decision points of helping

A

look just open the slides and LOOK

102
Q

What increases the odds for helping someone?

A
  1. person appears to need & deserve help
  2. person similar to us in some way
  3. person is woman
  4. just observed someone else being helpful
  5. not in a hurry
  6. small town/rural area
  7. feeling guilty
  8. focused on others & not preoccupied
  9. good mood
103
Q

What are some conditions with impaired social functioning?

A
  1. Autism
  2. Alzheimer’s
  3. Parkinson’s
  4. Huntington’s
  5. Depression
  6. Personality disorders
  7. Anxiety disorders

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