The Science of Cognition Flashcards
Action Potential
Book definition: “The sudden change in electric potential that travels down the axon of a neuron. (p. 12)”
The 6 pillars of Cognitive Science
Psychology
Philosophy
Linguistics
Artificial Intelligence
Neuroscience
Anthropology
What are the functions of the amygdala and the hippocampus?
hint: they’re both part of the limbic system
amygdala - involved in emotional responses
hippocampus - critical to human memory
What type of memory does the Amygdala and the Hippocampus create together?
Episodic memory; long-term memory of specific (often emotional) events
What is the main function of both Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas?
Speech
aphasia
severe impairment of speech resulted from a brain injury
axon
a long tube extending from the soma of a neuron and branching into terminal boutons that form synapses with dendrites of other neurons; axons provide the fixed paths by which neurons communicate with one another
BOLD (blood oxygen level dependent) response
a measure of the amount of oxygen in the blood (in fMRI studies)
we know /when/ and the /amount/ of the brain activity that took place
What is introspective observation?
Highly trained observers reported the contents of their own consciousness under carefully controlled conditions. The basic assumption was that the workings of the mind should be open to self-observation.
excitatory synapses
A synapse in which an action potential in a presynaptic neuron increases the probability of an action potential occurring in a postsynaptic cell.
intelligence
the ability to recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn and use language
What is cognitive science?
The attempt to integrate research efforts from psychology, philosophy, linguistics and neuroscience.
information-processing analysis
The attempt to analyze cognition as a set of steps for processing the abstract entity “information”. Information-processing analysis breaks a cognitive task down into a set of abstract information-processing steps.
synapse
the gap between a terminal bouton of the axon of one neuron and a dendrite of another neuron
neurotransmitter
a chemical that crosses the synapse from the axon of one neuron and alters the electric potential of the membrane of another neuron
What are the philosophical currents that inspired William James in his “Principles of Psychology”?
Pragmatism and functionalism, which were interested in action-oriented discipline, easily applicable in schools
Which theory did William James develop and what did it posit?
The theory of emotions, which posited emotions are created by the brain inferring from physiological reactions how it should “feel”. So rewards and punishments are paramount for learning.
On which experimental subjects did the behaviourists focus and why?
On animals since they posited that only external behaviour mattered, consciousness was not a usable concept (same goes for desires, thinking, emotions and perception)
Which philosophies were behind the behaviourist revolution in the USA?
Pragmatism and functionalism.
What did Skinner try to prove with his experiments on pigeons?
That scheduled reinforcement teaches a behaviour.
inhibitory synapses
Synapses where neurotransmitters, released by the terminal buttons of the axon, increase the potential difference across the membrane of the dendrite of the receiving neuron
dendrites
short branches attached to the soma of a neuron that form synapses with the terminal boutons of axons of other neurons
What does Gestalt psychology posit and why is it in contrast with both Introspection and Behaviourism?
It posits that the activity of the brain is more than the sum of its parts, contrasting with behaviourism because of its focus on the mind’s structure and with introspection because it sees the cognitive process as unavailable to our consciousness.
Sternberg paradigm
An experimental procedure in which participants are first presented with a memory set consisting of a few items and then must decide whether various probe items are in the memory set.
It is used to examine working memory
neuron
a cell in the nervous system responsible for information processing through electrochemical activity
rate of firing
The number of action potentials an axon transmits per second.
How does neural information processing take place?
By driving up the activation level of neurons (excitation) or by driving down the activation of neurons (inhibition).
How does the brain represent the complexity of cognition?
Through large patterns of neural activity.
empiricism
the philosophical position that believes that all knowledge is based on experience derived from the senses
How is information represented in the brain?
Information is represented by patterns of activity across many regions of the brain and by changes in the synaptic connections among neurons that allow these patterns to be reproduced.
If neural patterns are transitory how is memory then stored?
Through the change in synaptic connections between the neurons. Through this change the brain can enable itself to reproduce specific patterns.
What was the most obvious flaw of behaviourism WWII highlighted?
Its inability to offer practical solutions to help soldiers manage their behaviour in the trenches.
terminal boutons
the small knobs at the end of an axon that release chemicals called neurotransmitters
nativism
the philosophical position that believes that children come into the world with a great deal of innate knowledge
artificial intelligence
a field of computer science that attempts to develop programs that will enable machines to display intelligent behavior
Where and when was the method of Introspection first used in the field of Cognitive Sciences?
In Germany in 1879, with Wundt founding the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig.
Describe the method of Introspection
Highly trained observers reporting on their own conscious processes under carefully controlled conditions.
behaviorism
the theory that psychology should be concerned only with behaviour and should not refer to mental constructs underlying behaviour
What philosophy inspired the German School that Wundt was part of?
British empiricism, which postulated the mind was open to rational exploration
What are the philosophical currents that inspired William James in his “Principles of Psychology?
Pragmatism and functionalism, which were interested in action-oriented discipline, easily applicable in schools
According to Thorndike, how does behaviour arise?
From an action being consistently rewarded. A reward is more significant than thought.
Which theory did William James develop and what did it posit?
The theory of emotions, which posited emotions are created by the brain inferring from physiological reactions how it should “feel”. So rewards and punishments are paramount for learning.
What was the main consequence of the cognitive revolution?
That the two fields of cognitive psychology and and cognitive science broke away from behaviourism, shifting their attention towards language, memory, and thought
How can we define cognitive psychology?
As the science of how the mind is organised to produce intelligent thoughts and actions.
How is cognition studied in the field of cognitive science?
It is studied as information processing, aka: a set of steps to process abstract information
What does the Sternberg Paradigm posit?
That our analysing speed is dependent on the mole of data we must process.
Which relation did Sternberg find between the size of the data set participants were asked to remember and their reaction time?
He found a linear relationship. An increase of c.a. 38 ms per added number to the data set.
What are the two main areas in the frontal lobe, and their main functions?
- Prefrontal area: Higher level functions
Orbitofrontal: social behaviour, like understanding consequences of complex behaviour, and regulating our response to a certain objective.
Middle frontal gyrus: Relations between goal-directed behaviours and reactions. Combining information from orbitofrontal with sensory information.
Inferior frontal gyrus: Inhibition after a cue. - Back area: Motor functions
What are the main areas in the parietal lobe, and their main functions?
- Inferior parietal lobule: Mental tasks/control of attention – math, reasoning, language, comprehension use of tools
- Superior parietal lobule: Spatial processing and representation of the body. Combines visual information (occipital lobe) with touch (somatosensory) - Aid in recognizing objects, environment, and browsing existing memory.
- Precuneus: Enigmatic functions – imagination, self-consciousness, reflection.
- Somatosensory cortex: Information from touch sensors in the skin – areas of skin with more sensors appear larger (homunculus organisation).
What are the main functions and areas of the occipital lobe ?
Primary visual cortex: Decodes visual signals - where, how and what are we seeing. First part of the lobe to receive information from eyes (arrives via thalamus).
What are the main functions and areas of the temporal lobe ?
- Receives input from occipital lobe, and is involved in object recognition, hearing, smell, memory (house and create memories), language, emotion.
Primary auditory cortex: Interprets sound
What are the main functions of the Motor cortex and where is it located?
Located in the frontal lobe
1. Premotor cortex: Complex movement. Combine signals from the motor cortex and spinal cord to create intentional movement.
2. Motor cortex: Muscle contraction (movement). Constant contact with cerebellum, basal ganglia and other cortex areas to ensure precise coordinated motions.
What are the main functions of the Broca’s area, and where is it located?
-Located in the frontal lobe
-Speech production and language comprehension
What is the function of the left parietal cortex?
mental imagery (e.g. when we imagine an equation in our head)
What is the function of the left prefrontal cortex?
retrieval of (arithmetic, algebraic) information (e.g. how we remember numbers in an equation)
Compare fMRI and EEG in terms of their usage
fMRI - high spatial resolution, better for knowing the precise location
EEG - finer temporal resolution, better for brief cognition
Connectionist models
explaining cognitive functions should be based on the computations the brain performs
imagine a “neuron-like” structure connected by lines, which represent synapses
Deep learning
a learning technique for computers using multiple layers of interconnected networks with nodes
What is visual agnosia
The person is able to see and distinguish light, but unable to regocnize or percieve anything (in some cases)
What is apperceptive agnosia?
The person can’t regocnize or draw simple shapes, although being able to see them
associative agnosia
Can’t recognize complex shapes and objects, but are able to draw and copy them
What are cones and their functions?
Photoreceptors. High resolution, color vision and acuity. Concentrated in the fovea area which is responsible for fine detail vision in contrast to the periphery vision. Cones are individually organized
What are rods and their functions?
Photoreceptors. Don’t require as much light as cones. Good for night vision, but have bad resolution. Rods “gang-up” and help each other.
What is fMRI good for studying in the brain
complex cognition
