The Rise of Fascism 1919-22

Question 1

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Describe the first fascist demonstration of violence

Answer 1

• 15th April 1919
• A fascist squad of around 200-300 attacked a socialist demonstration in Milan and burned down the Milan offices of Avanti
• M had not authorised the violence in Milan, but helped him realise the power of squaristi violence
• govt made no attempt to condemn - police, army & govt would tolerate it for fears of socialist rev

Question 2

What was the outcome of the November 1919 elections for the Liberals?

Answer 2

The elections disappointed the Fascists, winning no seats in parliament, and highlighted the Liberals’ unpopularity.

Question 3

How did Nitti’s Liberal government maintain its majority?

Answer 3

It relied upon support from Catholic deputies.

Question 4

What was the PPI and who led it?

Answer 4

The PPI, or Popolari, was founded in January 1919
it contained conservative catholics & catholics committed to moral & social justice
and led by Sicilian priest Don Sturzo.

Question 5

What was the PPI’s stance on government involvement?

Answer 5

• The PPI was reluctant to play a major role in government but supported the Liberals for policy concessions
• It found it easier to agree on what it opposed rather than what it stood for

Question 6

What was Nitti’s fate in June 1920?

Answer 6

Nitti quietly resigned and was replaced by Giovanni Giolitti, because Nitti’s lib govt was disliked by both the right & the left

Question 7

Why did Nitti resign

Answer 7

• economic crisis
• Fiume discredited his government;
• failure to please the left by granting major reform or the right by crushing protests and strikes;
• and falling support from the PPI

Question 8

What was Giolitti’s approach to coalition building?

Answer 8

• The majority of socialists continued to be hostile to the liberals, so Giolitti relied on support from Catholics
• Giolitti attempted to appeal to both right and left (Trasformismo)

Question 9

Describe Giolitti’s coalition make up

Answer 9

• Liberals, Populari and a handful of moderate Socialists joined this coalition
• The majority of Socialists were very hostile

Question 10

What event occurred in September 1920 involving engineering workers?

Answer 10

Workers occupied factories to prevent employers from locking them out during a wage dispute

Question 11

How many workers were involved in the factory occupations?

Answer 11

Approximately 400,000 workers from northern cities participated.

Question 12

What was Giolitti’s policy during the factory occupations?

Answer 12

He followed a policy of neutrality, which looked like the govt had given into union demands, which angered industrialists.

Question 13

What were the consequences of Giolitti’s neutrality policy?

Answer 13

• Employers feared revolution and denounced the Liberals for cowardice, weakening the liberals further
• Once the 8 hour working days & minimum wage were introduced, it appeared this is when the upper & middle classes may have turned to fascism

Question 14

What was happening in the countryside during this period?

Answer 14

There were agricultural strikes and land occupations with trade unions expanding to nearly a million members e.g in Emilia, Tuscany & Po Valley

Question 15

What were the circumstances of the socialist advance in Ferrara & Bologna

Answer 15

• Workers could only gain employment through a job centre run by the Socialist Labourer’s Union
• If landowners resisted these demands, they could face disruption and may be subject to physical attack

Question 16

What was the economic circumstances in February 1920

Answer 16

• economic crisis with the production of wheat at 38 million quintals compared to the 52 million pre WW1
• industrial production had also fallen by 15% from 1914 levels

Question 17

What did Mussolini encourage the formation of

Answer 17

• more armed squads across Italy, wearing black unifroms & carrying manganello (clubs) as their weapons

Question 18

How did fascist fight back against continuing socialist threat

Answer 18

E.g in Emilia and Tuscany, people turning to local fascist squads who shared their hatred of socialism, supporting local fascist leaders like Italo Balbo in Ferrara and Dino Grandi in Bologna for help.
attacking socialist councils and supporters in Italy in an attempt to weaken power

Question 19

Give evidence of the continued power of the socialists

Answer 19

November 1920 - Local elections highlighted the continuing power of the socialists, as they now controlled 26 of Italy’s 69 provinces, mainly in northern and central Italy

Question 20

Importantly, many of the fascist squadristi weapons were supplied by the…

Answer 20

…local police and army barracks

Question 21

What convinced Mussolini to take the fascist movement more definitely to the right

Answer 21

• The fascist failure in the 1919 election
• & the popularity of the fascist action against the socialists,
• among Italians who feared a revolution (middle classes; military; some elements of the ruling elite etc.)

Question 22

What happened at the second fascist congress

Answer 22

• May 1920 - a “New Programme” was adopted
• more conservative and right wing, dropping any mentions of removing the monarchy and attacking the power of the Pope
• pro-business references and calls for compulsory military service
• considerably more successful and popular with the Italian population

Question 23

What control did Socialists have in local elections of 1920?

Answer 23

• Socialists controlled 26 of the country’s 69 provinces, mainly in northern and central Italy
• In Emilia, controlled 80% of local councils

Question 24

What concerns did the urban middle class have regarding Socialism?

Answer 24

They were worried about potential local tax increases benefitting the wealthy

Question 25

What were the shopkeepers concerned about in the 1920 elections

Answer 25

• the potential competition from the spread of Socialist-sponsored co-operatives:
• designed to offer fair prices, but also allow the shop workers a say in the running of the business and a share of the profits

Question 26

What began to happen by the end of 1920 in northern and central Italy?

Answer 26

Right-wingers started to fight back against Socialism with violence, which seemed justified in the face of revolution

Question 27

What actions did frightened landowners and townsfolk take?

Answer 27

In Emilia & Tuscany, they turned to local Fascist groups that shared their hatred of Socialism

Question 28

What was one of the first examples of Fascist violence?

Answer 28

• In November 1920, violence erupted during a meeting of a new Socialist council in Bologna
• OR Christmas Day 1920 Italian troops bombarded d’Annunzio’s headquarters. Within days he left Fiume without putting up any resistance

Question 29

What methods were used by Fascists against Socialists?

Answer 29

• violence against Socialist offices
• trade unions
• the drinking of castor oil

Question 30

What was the extent of violence during winter and spring 2021?

Answer 30

• 80 trade union offices were destroyed, with 200 dead and 800 wounded
• 100 socialist sympathisers were killed in the lead up to the election

Question 31

Where were the strongholds of the Fascist squads by spring 1921?

Answer 31

Emilia and Tuscany were strongholds of the squadrismo

Question 32

How did opposition to the fascists lessen in January 1921

Answer 32

• The more radical members of the PSI left to form the PCI supported by Russia
• The Fascists’ most critical opponents were weakened as a result of this split

Question 33

What was the outcome of Giolitti’s mishandling of the election in May 1921

Answer 33

• Giolitti allowed the fascist on his electoral roll –> hoping this would gain the liberals more votes
• but it just enabled Mussolini to gain respectability and a foothold in parliament
• & that violence and intimidation did not deter the voters with the Fascists winning 35 seats

Question 34

How did Mussolini view his own presitige in 1921

Answer 34

• success of the squadrismo –> Mussolini reasserted his claim to be the sole leader of the movement
• With him as leader Fascism could be presented as a national movement
• Mussolini continued to build the myth that the failure of the left was due to the Fascists and that he “saved Italy”

Question 35

How did Mussolini maintain support July 1921

Answer 35

Mussolini called for an end of violence to keep the middle class and industrialist support.

Question 36

What did Mussolini sign in Augsust 1921

Answer 36

The Pact of Pacification with the socialist trade union and the PSI

Question 37

To the public, why did it appear that Mussolini signed the Pact of Pacification

Answer 37

In public he said this was to bring peace to Italy

Question 38

In reality, why did Mussolini sign the Pact of Pacification

Answer 38

Mussolini was hoping the liberals and Catholics within parliament would come to a deal to stop him working with the socialists

Question 39

How did Mussolini manipulate the Pact of Pacification

Answer 39

• When the ras bosses withdraw their support for Mussolini he resigned
• At the PNF conference in November Fascist delegates overwhelmingly voted to support Mussolini as their leader and it became an official party
• Mussolini had cemented his position as leader through political manoeuvring
• He then dropped the Pact of Pacification

Question 40

What did Mussolini do in November 1921

Answer 40

• Mussolini made a direct attempt to appease Catholics;
• the Fascists now opposed divorce, were in agreement with the Popolari that the peasants deserved a better deal and were willing to settle the Roman question on terms acceptable to the Pope

Question 41

How did the political situation encourage Mussolini’s explosion of violence in 1922

Answer 41

• Mussolini was helped by the inadequate response of the liberal government.
  Ivanoe Bonomi’s govt collapsed in Feb –> replaced by uigi Facta
• Fascist violence surged –> ras Italo Balbo leading squads along the east coast of Ifaly, destroying all houses and offices where the socialists and communists held meetings –> govt do nothing