The organization of knowledge in the mind Flashcards
Can be expressed in words and other symbols(i.e.,
“knowingthat”)
Own knowledge of facts about cognitive psychology, about world history, about your
personal history, and about mathematics.
Declarative Knowledge
Follow procedural steps for performing actions(i.e.,
“knowinghow”)
Procedural Knowledge
An idea about something that provides a means of understanding the world.
It is the fundamental unit of symbolic knowledge, or knowledge of
correspondence between symbols and their meaning.
Concept
A hierarchy of concepts. It is a concept with members.
Category
Groupings that occur naturally in the world, like birds or
trees
Natural categories
Groupings that are designed or invented by humans to serve
particular purposes or functions, like automobiles and kitchen appliances
Artifact categories
Typically are described not in words but rather in phrases.
Theircontentvaries,dependingonthecontext
ad hoc categories
“a red, roundish edible
object that has a stem
and that came from a
tree.
“
- broad and general in their description.
Ex. a fruit
SUPERORDINATE LEVEL
“a red, roundish edible
object that has a stem
and that came from a
tree.
“
- the largest number of distinctive features.
Ex. an apple
BASIC LEVEL
“a red, roundish edible
object that has a stem
and that came from a
tree.
“
- has specific features and description.
Ex. a Red Delicious apple
SUBORDINATE LEVEL
The classic view of concepts breaks down a concept into a set of featural components.Each feature is considered necessary (andsufficient) to define the concept.Defining features are essential elements of the concept, and a thing must possess thesefeatures to be categorized as that concept.Ex.Abachelora”bachelor” can be defined by three features: male, unmarried, and adult.
FEATURE-BASED
objects in a particular category, share all of their defining feature
Family Resemblance
PROBLEM WITH
FEATURE-BASED
- it does not work as well as it appears to at firstcglance.
- Some concepts do not
readily lend themselves to featural analysis. - does not seem to change the concept we use to define
-may not always be fixed and can sometimes be flexible or
subject to change.
Grouping things together not by their defining features but rather by their similarity to an
averaged model of the category.
PROTOTYPE THEORY
an abstract average of all the objects in the category we previously have
encountered
Prototype
which describe (characterize ortypify) the prototype but are not
necessary for it. Commonly are present in typical examples of concepts, but they are not
always present.
Characteristic feature
- Defined through defining features, such as bachelor.
- Typically created by experts and involve strict defining features that are
arbitrarily assigned to a category. - Defining features are considered necessary and sufficient to determine
membership in the category.
CLASSICAL CONCEPTS
- Tend to evolve naturally and are often based on typical or characteristic
features rather than strict defining features. - More flexible and allow for variation and uncertainty in categorization.
FUZZY CONCEPTS
Some psychologists suggest that instead of using a single abstract prototype for
categorizing concept, we use multiple, specific exemplars
REAL-WORLD EXAMPLES
suggests that prototypes and exemplars are just the two extremes on a
continuum of abstraction.
VARYING ABSTRACTION MODEL (VAM)
Categorization does not solely rely on one abstract prototype or a large number
of concrete exemplars.
Intermediate representations are used, which represent subgroups or higherorder categories within a category.
THEORY OF INTERMEDIATE REPRESENTATIONS
A full theory of categorization can combine both defining and characteristic features.
The prototype encompasses the characteristic features that tend to be typical of an example (a
birdcanfly) but that are not necessary for being considered an example (anostrich)
COMBINING FEATURE-BASED
AND PROTOTYPE THEORIES
Refers to the defining features something must have to be considered an example of a
category
Core
- holds that people understand and categorize concepts in terms of
implicit theories, or general ideas they have regarding those concept. - Use your experience to construct an explanation.
- people can distinguish between essential and incidental,oraccidental,featuresofconcepts
because they have complex mental representations of these concepts.
THEORY-BASED VIEW OF
CATEGORIZATION
suggest that knowledge is represented in our minds
in the form of concepts that are connected with
each other Ina web-like form.
SEMANTIC NETWORK MODELS
Semantic network- web of elements of meaning(nodes) in which the elements are
connected with each other through links.
Organized knowledge representation takes the form of a hierarchical tree
diagram.
COLLINS AND QUILLIAN’S
NETWORK MODEL
web of elements of meaning(nodes) in which the elements are
connected with each other through links.
Semantic network
typically concepts.The connections between the nodes are labeled relationships
Nodes
provides means for organizing
concepts.
Networks
knowledge is organized based on a comparison of
semantic features, rather than one strict hierarchy
of concepts.
-differs from feature based theory of categorization in a key way:
Features of different concepts are compared directly, rather than
serving as the basis for forming a category.
COMPARARING SEMANTIC
FEATURES
-common method for examining semantic networks.
-participants are presented a prime for a very short amount of time and then
are given the first few letters of a word and told to complete the stem with the
first word that comes to mind.
Word stem completion
Alternative to hierarchical network models of semantic memory involves representations highlighting the ___________.
COMPARISON OF SEMANTIC
FEATURES
Schemas
- understanding how concepts are related in the
mind
-task oriented
SCHEMATIC
REPRESENTATIONS
-richly elaborated
-encompasses many subschemas, such as
subschema for attention, memory, and perception.
SCHEMA FOR COGNITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY
- Schemas can include other schemas.
- Schemas encompass typical, general facts that
can vary slightly from one specific instance to
another. - Schemas can vary in their degree of abstraction
Schemas Characteristic
SCHEMA INFORMATION ABOUT
RELATIONSHIPS
- concepts
- attributes within concepts
- attributes in related concepts
- concepts and particular contexts
- specific concepts and general background
The fence to the left and right has been added and
the bottoms of the lid and trashcan shave been
added.
BOUNDARY EXTENSION
Can give rise to stereotypes
Problem with schemas
-kind of schema
-contains information about the particular ordering hitch things occur.
-include default values for the actors, theprops, thesetting, and the sequence
of events expected to occur.
SCRIPTS
SCRIPT SEVERAL FEATURES
- props
- roles to be played
- opening conditions for the script
- scenes
- set of results
PATIENT POPULATION WITH
IMPAIRED SCRIPT USE
-Schizophrenia
-Attention Deficit hyperactivity
disorder(ADHD)
-people with autistic spectrum
disorder
-people who are aging
What part of the lobe seem to play central role inscription reaction
anduse.
frontal lobes
trouble recalling
and sequencing scripts. Add events
to a script that should not be included.
Schizophrenia
-an interesting effect in script learning. In general,
when a person is learning a script, if both typical and
atypical actions are provided, the a typical information
will be recalled more readily.
-This difference is likely due to the increased effort in processing required for atypical information as
compared with typical information.
TYPICALITY EFFECT
representation is acquired by practicing the
implementation of a procedure.
PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE
in which
information is handled through a linear sequence of
operations, one operation at a time.
serial processing of information
includes the generation and output of
a procedure.
production
This is part of rules that includes a set of conditions that must be
met to implement the “then” clause.
“if”clause
This is part of rules that an action or a series of actions that
are a response to the “if” clause.
“then” clause
instructions regarding procedures for
implementing a task.
Routines
instructions for implementing a
subtask within a larger task governed by a routine
Subroutines
Many of these routines and subroutines are
___________, meaning that they are repeated many
times during the performance of task.
iterative
- complete a particular task or use a skill
-include the entire set of rules (productions)for
executing the task or using the skill.
PRODUCTION SYSTEM
-encompass a broader range of mental representations
than just procedural Knowledge.
NON-DECLARATIVE
KNOWLEDGE
2 types of priming
Semantic priming
Repetition priming
FORMS OF NONDECLARATIVE
KNOWLEDGE:
- perceptual, motor, and cognitiveskills (procedural knowledge)
- simple associative knowledge (classicalandoperant conditioning)
- simple nonassociative knowledge (habituation and sensitization)
- priming(fundamental links within acknowledge network, in which the activation of information along particular mental pathway facilitates the subsequent retrieval of information along a related pathway or even the same mental pathway).
primed by a
meaningful context or by meaningful
information.
Semantic priming
a prior exposure
toward or other stimulus primes a
subsequent retrieval of that
information.
Repetition priming
requires you to draw on your store of declarative
knowledge.
Priming
a model of information processing that integrates a
network representation for declarative Knowledge and a
production system representation for procedural
knowledge processing
COMBINING REPRESENTATIONS: ACT-R
(ADAPTIVE CONTROL OF THOUGHT-RATIONAL)
- Knowledge is represented in
semantic networks
-Nodes can be either inactive or
active at a given time
.
-Nodes can be activated either
through direct or indirect stimuli
Declarative Knowledge within ACT-R
Knowledge is represented in production systems
Procedural Knowledge within ACT-R
3 stages of Procedural Knowledge within ACT-R
- Cognitive
- Associative
- Autonomous
we think about explicit rulesfor implementing the procedure.
Cognitive
we consciously practice using the explicit
rules extensively, usually in a highly consistent manner
Associative
we use these rules automatically and
implicitly without thinking about them.
Autonomous
overall process by which we transform slow, explicit
information about procedures (“knowing that”) into speedy,
implicit, implementations of procedures(“knowing how”).
Proceduralization
we construct a single production rule that
effectively embracestwo or more production rules
Composition
involves the two complementary
processes of generalization and discrimination
Production tuning
multiple operations
go on all at once
PARALLEL PROCESSING: THE
CONNECTIONIST MODEL
neurons release neurotransmitters
that inhibit receptive neurons.
Inhibitory
According to ____________, models or connectionist models, we handle very
large numbers of cognitive operations at once
through a network distributed across incalculable
numbers of locations in the rain.
parallel distributed processing (PDP)
Who?; a model of information processing that
integrates a network representation for declarative
knowledge and production system representation for
procedural knowledge processing
John Anderson
neurons are not stimulated beyond
their threshold of excitation.
Inactive
neurons release neurotransmitters that stimulate receptive
neuronsatthesynapse.
Excitatory
what makes humans to accommodate incomplete and distorted information
Versatility
information that is distorted or
incomplete
Degraded
