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The Immune System Flashcards

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1
Q

the innate defense system is ______

A

nonspecific

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2
Q

the innate defense system
is always ________
responding within _______
to protect the body from ________

A

prepared
minutes
foreign substances

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3
Q

the innate defense system has two barricades

A

the first line of defense

the second line of defense

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4
Q

the first line of defense

A

consists of surface barriers

intact skin and mucosae.

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5
Q

the second line of defense called into action whenever the first line has been ________

A

penetrated

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6
Q

the second line of defense relies on ____ defenses such as ______ proteins, ______, and other cells to inhibit the invaders’ spread throughout the body.

A

internal
antimicrobial
phagocytes

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7
Q

The hallmark of the second line

of defense is

A

inflammation

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8
Q

the adaptive defense system is _______

A

specific

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9
Q

the adaptive defense system attacks _____ foreign substances

A

identified

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10
Q

The adaptive defense response, which provides the body’s _________, takes considerably ______ to mount than the innate defense response.

A

third line of defense

longer

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11
Q

immune system is a _____ system rather than an ____ system in an anatomical sense.

A

functional

organ

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12
Q

The innate and adaptive systems release and recognize (bind to) many of the

A

same defensive molecules

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13
Q

The innate responses are not as nonspecific as once thought. Indeed, they have __________

A

specific pathways to target certain foreign substances.

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14
Q

Proteins released during innate responses alert cells of the _____ to the presence of specific foreign molecules in the body

A

adaptive system

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15
Q

When the immune system is operating effectively, it protects the body from most infectious microorganisms, cancer cells, and (unfortunately) transplanted organs and grafts. It does this both directly, by ______, and indirectly, by ________-and __________.

A

cell attack
releasing mobilizing chemicals
protective antibody molecules

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16
Q

pathogens

A

harmful or disease-causing microorganisms

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17
Q

we come fully equipped with _____ defense

A

innate

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18
Q

the innate defenses ____ the workload of the adaptive system by ____ the entry and ____ of microorganisms in the body.

A

reduces
preventing
spread

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19
Q

The body’s first line of defense the ___ and the _______, along with the _____ these membranes produce-is highly effective.

A

skin
mucous membranes
secretions

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20
Q

As long as the epidermis is unbroken, this heavily ___________ membrane is a formidable _____ barrier to most microorganisms

A

keratinized epithelial

physical

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21
Q

Keratin is also resistant to most _____ and ____ and to _____ and _____.

A

weak acids
bases
bacterial enzymes
toxins

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22
Q

Recall that mucous membranes line all body

cavities that ___________

A

open to the exterior

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23
Q

examples of mucous membranes

A

the digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts.

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24
Q

skin and mucous membranes produce a variety of protective chemicals

A 
acid
enzymes
mucin
defensins
other chemicals
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25
Q

acid

The acidity of skin, vaginal, and stomach secretions _____________

A

the acid mantle inhibits bacterial growth

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26
Q

Enzymes
_______ found in saliva, respiratory mucus,
and ____fluid of the eye destroys bacteria. ___________ in the stomach kill many different microorganisms

A

lysozyme
lacrimal
Protein digesting enzymes

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27
Q

______ dissolved in water forms thick, sticky mucus
that lines the ______ and _______ passageways. This mucus traps many microorganisms. Likewise, the mucin in _______ traps microorganisms and washes them out of the mouth into the stomach where they are digested.

A

mucin
digestive
respiratory
watery saliva

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28
Q

Mucous membranes and skin secrete small
amounts of broad-spectrum antimicrobial peptides
called _____. Defensin output increases dramatically
in response to _____ when surface barriers are
breached. Using various mechanisms, such as disruption of microbial membranes, defensins help to control ____ and ____ colonization in the exposed areas.

A

defensins
inflammation
bacterial
fungal

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29
Q

In the skin, some lipids in _____ and

______ in eccrine sweat are ____ to bacteria.

A

sebum
dermcidin
toxic

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30
Q

These protective tactics identify potentially harmful substances by recognizing (binding to) molecules with specific shapes that are part of infectious organisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, and various parasites) but
not normal human cells. The receptors that do this are called

A

pattern recognition receptors

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31
Q

one class of pattern recognition receptors called ___________ plays a central role in triggering an immune response

A

Toll-like receptors (TLRs)

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32
Q

There are ___ types of human TLRs, each recognizing a particular class of ________

A

11

attacking microbe

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33
Q

give examples of some TLRs

A

one type responds to a glycolipid in cell walls of the tuberculosis bacterium
another type responds to a component of gram-negative bacteria such as salmonella

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34
Q

These pattern recognition receptors allow the cells to recognize invaders and sound a

A

chemical “alarm” that initiates inflammation

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35
Q

Pathogens that get through the skin or mucosae into the underlying connective tissue are confronted by

A

phagocytes

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36
Q

Neutrophils, the most abundant type of _____ cell, become _____ on encountering _____ material in the tissues

A

White blood
phagocytic
infectious

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37
Q

the most voracious phagocytes are

A

macrophages

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38
Q

Macrophages derive from white blood

cells called

A

monocytes

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39
Q

what are the 2 types of macrophages

A

free and fixed macrophages

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40
Q

Free Macrophages

A

wander throughout the tissue spaces in

search of cellular debris or “foreign invaders.”

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41
Q

Fixed Macrophages

A

such as stellate macrophages in the

liver, are permanent residents of particular organs.

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42
Q

In phagocytosis
The particle (pathogen) is pulled inside,
enclosed within a membrane-lined vesicle called _____

A

phagosome

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43
Q

The resulting phagosome then fuses with a lysosome to form a

A

phagolysosome

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44
Q

Neutrophils and macrophages generally kill ingested prey by _____ the phagolysosome and digesting its contents with ______ enzymes.

A

acidifying

lysosomal

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45
Q

some pathogens such as the tuberculosis bacillus and certain parasites are resistant to_____ enzymes and can even multiply wthin the _____-.

A

lysosomal

phagolysosome

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46
Q

in cases like tuberculosis bacillus other immune cells called ________ release chemicals that stimulate the macrophage

A

helper T cells

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47
Q

when helper T cells release chemicals that stimulate macrophages This activates additional enzymes that produce a lethal

A

respiratory burst

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48
Q

The respiratory burst promotes killing of pathogens by:

A
  • Liberating a deluge of highly destructive free radicals
  • Producing oxidizing chemicals (hydrogen peroxide and a substance identical to household bleach)
  • Increasing the phagolysosome’s pH and osmolarity, which activates other protein-digesting enzymes that digest the invader
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49
Q

Neutrophils also pierce the pathogen’s membrane by using

A

defensins

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50
Q

Phagocytic attempts are not always successful. In order for a phagocyte to ingest a pathogen, the phagocyte must first ____ to that pathogen, a feat made possible by recognizing the pathogen’s carbohydrate “______.”

A

adhere

signature

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51
Q

complement proteins or antibodies

A

opsonins

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52
Q

Any pathogen can be coated with

opsonins, a process called

A

opsonization

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53
Q

what does opsonization do

A

greatly accelerates phagocytosis of that pathogen.

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54
Q

When phagocytes are unable to ingest their targets (because of size, for example), they can

A

release their toxic chernicals into

the extracellular fluid.

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55
Q

Whether killing ingested or extracellular
targets, ______ rapidly destroy themselves in the process. In contrast, _____ are more robust and can survive to kill another day.

A

neutrophils

macrophages

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56
Q

Natural killer (NK) cells, which “police” the body in ____and ____, are a unique group of defensive cells that can kill ____ cells and _____body cells ____ the adaptive immune system is activated.

A 
blood
lymph
cancer 
virus infected
before
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57
Q

NK cells are part of a small group

of

A

large granular Lymphocytes.

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58
Q

Unlike lymphocytes of the adaptive immune system, which only recognize and react against specific infected or tumor cells, NK cells are

A

far less picky

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59
Q

NKs can eliminate a variety of infected or cancerous cells by detecting general abnormalities such as the lack of “self” cell-surface proteins called

A

MHC

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60
Q

The name “natural” killer cells reflects their

A

nonspecificity

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61
Q

NK cells are not

A

phagocytic

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62
Q

how do NK cells kill

A

directly contacting the target cell, inducing it to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death).

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63
Q

NK cells kill by the same method as

A

used by cytotoxic T cells

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64
Q

NK cells also secrete ____ chemicals

that enhance the _______

A

potent

inflammatory response

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65
Q

what is inflammation

A

nonspecific response to any tissue injury

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66
Q

what are some causes of inflammation

A

physical trauma
intense heat
irritating chemicals
infection

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67
Q

Inflammation has several beneficial effects

A
  • It prevents the spread of damaging agents to nearby tissues.
  • It disposes of cell debris and pathogens.
  • It alerts the adaptive immune system.
  • It sets the stage for repair
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68
Q

How can you tell if inflammation is present

A

There are four cardinal signs of acute short term inflammation
redness, heat, swelling, pain
(impaired function some authorities consider it)

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69
Q

The inflammatory process begins with a chemical “alarm”

A

a flood of inflammatory chemicals released into the extracellular fluid.

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70
Q

Inflammatory chemicals are released by

A

injured or stressed tissue cells, and immune cells.

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71
Q

what do mast cells release

A

histamine

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72
Q

Other inflammatory chemicals include

A

kinins, prostaglandins, cytokines

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73
Q

cytokines

A

a group of chemical mediators of immune responses

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74
Q

If pathogens provoked the inflammation, a

group of plasma proteins known as ______ is activated to form potent inflammatory chemicals

A

complement

75
Q

All inflammatory chemicals ____ local arterioles and
make local capillaries ____.
Many also attract _____ to the injured area.
In addition, some have individual inflammatory roles,
such as _________ and other elements of _______ immunity

A 
dilate 
leakier
phagocytes
mobilizing lymphocytes
adaptive
76
Q

Vasodilation of local arterioles causes local

A

hyperemia (increased blood flow)

77
Q

Hyperemia brings more ____ and _____ of the immune system to the injured area.

A

cells

chemicals

78
Q

hyperemia accounts for which cardinal signs

A

redness and heat of an inflamed region

79
Q

Inflammatory chemicals also increase the permeability of

A

local capillaries and venules

80
Q

Consequently, _______ fluid containing clotting factors and antibodies-seeps from the blood into the tissue spaces.

A

exudate

81
Q

This influx of protein-rich fluids into the tissue spaces

sweeps foreign material into the ____________ so it can be processed in the________

A

lymphatic vessels

lymphatic nodes

82
Q

the influx of proteins also delivers important proteins such as ____and ____ factors to the interstitial fluid

A

complement

clotting

83
Q

The clotting factors form a gel-like fibrin ___

that acts as a scaffold for_____

A

mesh

permanent repair

84
Q

The mesh also _____ the injured area and
prevents bacteria and other harmful agents
from ____

A

isolates

spreading

85
Q

The increased tissue fluid causes the _____________

that presses on adjacent nerve endings, contributing to a sensation of ____.

A

local swelling edema

pain

86
Q

Pain also results from the release of ___________ and the sensitizing effects of released _______
and _____.

A

bacterial toxins
prostaglandins
kinins

87
Q

Aspirin and some other anti inflammatory drugs reduce pain by ______________________________

A

inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis

88
Q

Soon after inflammation begins, ______

flood the damaged area. ______ lead followed by _____

A

phagocytes
neutrophils
macrophages

89
Q

Phagocyte Mobilization

A

leukocytosis
Margination
Diapedesis
chemotaxis

90
Q

Injured cells release chemicals called

A

leukocytosis inducing factors

91
Q

Leukocytosis. Injured cells release chemicals called
___________
In response, ______ enter blood from red bone marrow and within a few hours, the number of neutrophils in blood increases four- to five fold.
This leukocytosis, the increase in __________, is characteristic of inflammation

A

neutrophils
leukocytosis-inducing factors.
white blood cells

92
Q

Margination

A

refers to the phenomenon of phagocytes clinging to the inner walls (margins) of the capillaries and post capillary venules.

93
Q

Inflamed endothelial cells sprout ______ that signal “________.”

A

cell adhesion molecules

this is the place

94
Q

As neutrophils encounter these CAMs, they

A

bind breifly

95
Q

As neutrophils encounter these CAMs, they bind briefly. This causes them to

A

slow and roll along the inner surface of the blood vessel so they can be activated by inflammatory chemicals.

96
Q

Once activated, neutrophils sprout additional

A

CAMs on their own plasma membranes

97
Q

Once activated, neutrophils sprout additional CAMs on their own plasma membranes. This allows the neutrophils to

A

bind endothelial cells tightly, creating an initial foothold.

98
Q

what is diapedesis

A

Continued chemical signaling prompts the neutrophils to flatten and squeeze between the endothelial cells of the capillary walls

99
Q

Inflammatory chemicals act as homing devices,

or more precisely

A

chemotactic agents

100
Q

_____ and other _____ migrate up the gradient of chemotactic agents to the site of injury

A

neutrophils

WBC

101
Q

Within an hour after the inflammatory response has begun, _____ have collected at the site and are devouring any foreign material present

A

neutrophils

102
Q

As the body’s counterattack continues, _____ follow ______ into the injured area.

A

monocytes

neutrophils

103
Q

Monocytes are fairly poor _____, but within 12 hours of leaving the blood and entering the tissues, they ____ and develop large numbers of ____, becoming ____ with insatiable ____.

A 
phagocytes
swell
lysosomes
macrophages
appetite
104
Q

are the central actors in the final disposal of cell
debris as acute inflammation subsides, and they predominate at
sites of chronic inflammation.

A

macrophages

105
Q

The ultimate goal of an inflammatory response is to clear the injured area of

A

pathogens, dead tissue

cells, and any other debris so that tissue can be repaired

106
Q

what is pus

A

a mixture of dead or dying neutrophils, broken-down tissue cells, and living and dead pathogens

107
Q

If the inflammatory
mechanism fails to clear the area of debris, collagen fibers may be laid down, which walls off the sac of pus, forming an

A

abscess

108
Q

abscess may need to be _______ before healing

can occur.

A

surgically drained

109
Q

Some bacteria, such as tuberculosis bacilli, resist digestion
by the macrophages that engulf them. They escape the effects
of prescription antibiotics by rernaining snugly enclosed within
their macrophage hosts. In such cases _______ form

A

granulomas

110
Q

what do granulomas contain

A

tumorlike growths contain a central region of infected macrophages surrounded by uninfected macrophages and an outer fibrous capsule

111
Q

A person may harbor pathogens walled off in granulomas
for years without displaying any symptoms. However, if the
person’s resistance to infection is ever compromised, the

A

bacteria may be activated and break free, leading to clinical disease symptoms.

112
Q

antimicrobial proteins

A

enhance our innate defenses by attacking microorganisms directly or by hindering their ability to reproduce

113
Q

The most important antimicrobial proteins are

A

interferons and complement proteins

114
Q

Infected cells can do little to save themselves, but some

can secrete small proteins called

A

interferons

115
Q

what do interferons do

A

help protect cells that have not yet been infected.

116
Q

interferons diffuse to nearby cells, which they stimulate to synthesize proteins that block further protein synthesis and degrade _____. In this way they interfere with ________

A

viral RNA

viral replication

117
Q

Because IFN protection is virus-specific, IFNs produced against a particular virus protect against

A

other viruses too

118
Q

The IFNs are a family of __________ proteins produced by a variety of body cells, each having a slightly different _________ effect

A

modulating proteins

physiological

119
Q

IFN alpha and beta have the

A

antiviral effects

activate NK cells

120
Q

IFN gamma is also called

A

immune interferon

121
Q

IFN gamma is secreted by ______

also explain its effect

A

lymphocytes and has widespread immune mobilizing effects, such as activating macrophages

122
Q

Because both macrophages and NK cells can also act directly against cancerous cells, the ______ have an indirect role in fighting cancer.

A

interferons

123
Q

IFNs are used to treat several disorders including

A

hepatitis C, genital warts, and multiple sclerosis

124
Q

The term complement system, or simply complement, refers to a

A

group of at least 20 plasma proteins that normally circulate in the blood in an inactive state

125
Q

the complement plasma proteins include those

A

numbered C1 through C9 plus several others that act as regulatory proteins and other factors

126
Q

Complement provides a major mechanism for

A

destroying foreign substances in the body

127
Q

complement activation does what

A

unleashes inflammatory chemicals that amplify virtually all aspects of the inflammatory process

128
Q

Activated complement also lyses and kills

A

certain bacteria and other cell types

129
Q

Although complement is a ____ defensive mechanism, it “complements” (enhances) the effectiveness of_____________

A

nonspecific

both innate and adaptive defenses

130
Q

the three pathways by which complement can be activated.

A

classical
lectin
alternative

131
Q

the classical pathway involves

A

antibodies

132
Q

what are antibodies

A

water-soluble protein molecules that the adaptive immune system produces to fight off foreign invaders.

133
Q

When antibodies bind to _____,

they can also bind complement components

A

pathogens

134
Q

When antibodies bind to pathogens, they can also bind complement components. This double binding is the

A

first step in this classical complement activation pathway

135
Q

The lectin patln vay involves

A

lectins

136
Q

what are lectins

A

water-soluble protein molecules that the innate immune system produces to recognize foreign invaders

137
Q

When lectins bind specific _____________, they can then bind and
activate complement.

A

sugars on the surface of microorganisms

138
Q

The alternative pathway is triggered when spontaneously activated ____________ interact on the surface of microorganisms

A

C3 and other complement factors

139
Q

These microorganisms lack the __________ inhibitors our own cells have

A

complement activation

140
Q

The three pathways converge at C3, which is split into

A

C3a and C3b.

141
Q

Splitting C3 initiates a

A

common terminal pathway that enhances inflammation, promotes phagocytosis, and can cause cell lysis

142
Q

Cell lysis begins when ___ binds to the target cell ‘s surface and triggers the insertion of a group of complement proteins called _______ into the cell’s membrane.

A

C3b

MAC (membrane attack complex)

143
Q

MAC forms and stabilizes a hole in the membrane that

allows a

A

massive influx of water, lysing the target cell.

144
Q

The C3b molecules also act as

A

opsonins

145
Q

C3a and
other molecules formed during complement activation amplify
the inflammatory response by

A

stimulating mast cells and basophils to release histamine and by attracting neutrophils and
other inflammatory cells to the area.

146
Q

what is fever

A

an abnonnally high body temperature,

is a systemic response to invading microorganisms

147
Q

When leukocytes and macrophages are exposed to foreign

substances in the body, they release chemicals called

A

pyrogens

148
Q

These ______ act on the body’s thermostat cluster of neurons in the ______ raising the body’s
temperature above normal

A

pyrogens

hypothalamus

149
Q

Fever causes the liver and spleen to

A

sequester iron and zinc, which may make them Jess available to support bacterial growth

150
Q

fever increase the _________ of tissue cells, and may speed up ___________

A

metabolic rate

repair processes

151
Q

adaptive immune system

A

the body’s built-in specific defensive system that stalks

and eliminates with nearly equal precision almost any type of pathogen that intrudes into the body

152
Q

When it operates effectively, the adaptive immune system protects us from a wide variety of infectious agents, as well as from abnormal body cells. When it fails, or is disabled, devastating diseases such as

A

cancer and AIDS results

153
Q

The activity of the adaptive immune system tremendously amplifies the _________ and is s responsible for most ________

A

inflammatory response

complement activation

154
Q

the adaptive system must “meet” or be primed

by an initial exposure to a

A

specific foreign substance (antigen).

155
Q

list the three characteristics of adaptive immunity

A

● It is specific. It recognizes and targets particular pathogens or foreign substances that initiate the immune response.
● It is systemic. Immunity is not restricted to the initial infection site.
● It has “memory.” After an initial exposure, it recognizes and mounts even stronger attacks on previously encountered pathogens.

156
Q

that injecting antibody-containing serum did
not always protect the recipient from diseases the serum donor
had survived. In such cases, however, injecting the donor’s lymphocytes

A

did provide immunity

157
Q

humoral immunity is also called

A

antibody mediated immunity

158
Q

humoral immunity is provided by

A

antibodies present in the

body’s “humors,” or fluids (blood, lymph, etc.).

159
Q

Though they are produced by lymphocytes, antibodies circulate freely in the ____ and ____, where they bind primarily to ______ bacteria, bacterial toxins, and free viruses inactivating them temporarily and marking them for destruction by _____ or ________.

A 
blood
lymph
extracellular targets
phagocytes
complement
160
Q

When lymphocytes themselves rather than antibodies defend

the body, the immunity is called

A

cellular or cell-mediated immunity because living cells provide the protection

161
Q

cellular or cell-mediated immunity because living cells provide the protection

A

virus-infected or parasite-infected tissue

cells, cancer cells, and cells of foreign grafts

162
Q

The lymphocytes act against such targets either directly, by ________, or
indirectly, by _______________

A
  • killing the infected cells

- releasing chemicals that enhance the inflammatory response or activate other lymphocytes or macrophages.

163
Q

adaptive defense involved ______________ which are not involved in innate immunity

A

B and T lymphocytes

164
Q

Antigens

A

are substances that can mobilize the adaptive defenses.

165
Q

They are the ultimate targets of all adaptive

immune responses

A

antigens

166
Q

Most antigens are

A

large, complex molecules (natural or synthetic) that are foreign (not normally present in the body). Consequently, as far as our immune system is concerned, they are intruders, or nonself.

167
Q

Antigens can be

A

complete or incomplete

168
Q

Complete antigens have two important functional properties:

A

lmmunogenicity

Reactivity

169
Q

lmmunogenicity

A

which is the ability to stimulate specific

lymphocytes to proliferate (multiply)

170
Q

Reactivity

A

which is the ability to react with the activated

lymphocytes and the antibodies released by immunogenic reactions.

171
Q

An almost limitless variety of foreign molecules can act
as complete antigens, including virtually all _______, many large ________, and some _____ and _______. Of these, ______ are the strongest antigens.

A

foreign proteins
polysaccharides
lipids
proteins

172
Q

Pollen grains and microorganisms-such as bacteria, fungi, and virus particles are all ______ because their surfaces bear many different ___________

A

immunogenic

foreign macromolecules

173
Q

As a rule, small molecules-such as peptides, nucleotides, and many hormones-are

A

not immunogenic

174
Q

As a rule, small molecules-such as peptides, nucleotides, and many hormones-are not immunogenic. But if they link up with the body’s own proteins, the adaptive immune system may recognize the

A

combination as foreign and mount an attack that
is harmful rather than protective.
these reactions are referred to as hypersensitivities

175
Q

In such cases of hypersensitivities the small troublesome molecule is called

A

hapten

176
Q

hapten is

A

incomplete antigen

177
Q

Unless attached to protein carriers, haptens have

A

reactivity but not immunogenicity.

178
Q

Besides certain drugs (particularly penicillin), chemicals

that act as haptens are found in

A

poison ivy, animal dander, detergents, cosmetics, and a number of common household and industrial products.

179
Q

The ability of a molecule to act as an antigen depends on

A

both its size and its complexity

180
Q

Only certain parts of the antigen, called ______________ are immunogenic

A

antigenic determinants

181
Q

Antibodies or lymphocyte receptors bind to these antigenic determinants in much the same manner that an

A

enzyme binds to a substrate

182
Q

Most naturally occurring antigens have a variety of

A

antigenic determinants on their surfaces

183
Q

Different lymphocytes “recognize” different

A

antigenic determinants, so a single antigen may mobilize several lymphocyte populations and
stimulate formation of many kinds of antibodies.

Bio 2 (14 decks)

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