The global commons Flashcards
the global commons
resources that are shared and accessible by all, wiht no single governing body
4 notable commons - the high seas (international waters), atmosphere, outer space, Antarctica
at risk of over exploitation
Physical geography of Antarctica
mountainous and rocky
97% covered by glacial ice
transantarctic range has many peaks over 4000km
highest mountain - Mt Vinson (4892m)
highest continent - average 2300m
Climate of Antarctica
coldest, windiest, driest continent
average temp - -49 degrees
can dip down to -89 degrees
mean wind speed 50mph (up to 200mph)
annual precipitation less than 50mm
polar desert
station names (Mawson)
east Antarctica
climate zones - continental low latitude coast
altitude 9m
average annual temp -11.9 degrees
annual temp range 18.9 degrees
Stations - Vostok
east
continental high plateau
-55.1 degrees
36 degrees
Stations - McMurdo
south coast
continental high latitude
24m
-16.9 degrees
23 degrees
Stations - Byrd
west
continental low plateau
1553m
-28 degrees
22 degrees
Stations - Rothera
Antarctic peninsula west
5m
-5.3 degrees
13 degrees
Stations - Orcadas
Antarctic islands
4m
-4 degrees
6.9 degrees
Antarctic peninsula
micro-climate conditions and topography
allows some land to be free from snow in summer
west antarctic peninsula one of fastest warming areas on earth
only some areas in arctic circle experiencing faster rates
why is antarctica so cold
furthest away from equator - sun light spread out over larger distance/ area at the poles
highest continent - average elevation above 2300m
large landmass
Physical characteristics
ice sheets result from input and accumulation of snow and frost (far exceeds rates of ablation) over long period of time
very little of Antarctica free from ice
Accumulation and ablation
top of mountains - very high winds, slopes, altitude, dryness stops snow from accumulating
no clouds and precipitation
dry valleys - driest areas
little to no precipitation - nothing to turn to ice
Antarctic circumpolar currect (ACC)
driven by ocean current that flows around Antarctica
ACC result of convergence zone and strong winds
zone of high pressure
current blocks warmer water travelling south
flows around Antarctica in eastward direction blown by westerly winds
east wind drift
where they meet is called Antarctic divergence
Biodiversity
conditions harsh on land - only two species of plant
marine condiitons support diverse ecosystems
sea temperatures warmer than land
upwelling of cooler water from ocean depths brings nutrients to support phytoplankton
phytoplankton
self-feeding component of plankton community and key part of oceans, seas, and freshwater basin ecosystems
threats - Whaling
began in 1904 - all 7 species of Whales found in Southern Ocean extensively exploited
improved tech and decay of whale stocks in north led whalers to hunt southern hemisphere
industrial scale whaling
20th ceentury whaling - more than 200,000 blue whales, latest estimate around 2300 (blue whales critically endangered)
International whaling commission (IWC)
set up 1946
global body responsible for management and conservation of whaling and whales - now has 88 member countries
programme today includes bycatch and entanglement, ship strikes, ocran noise, pollution, debris and sustainable whale watching
Commercial fishing a threat to ecosystems
antarctic finfish, crab, krill, and seals - key components of Antarctic ecosystem have been exploited throughout history
1825 - certain species of fish severely overfished in some areas (krill in 80 and 90s)
krill - small and exclusively marine creatures (producing products like animal feed and nutritional supplements)
animals depend on krill for survival in harsh climates
International whaling moratorium (IWM)
set up 1982
put temporary whaling ban
Japan, Iceland, Norway whaling for commercial reasons (Japan claim its for scientific research)
ICeland and norway - 900 whales
IWM allowed for aboriginal subsistence whaling (indigenous groups have quota)
sea shepard charity seem to be only one going against them
Threat - climate change
West coast of Antarctica warming and having higher rates of ice loss (thinning ice)
impact of climate change on Antarctic ice
no uniform impact - distinctive east/west split
some areas land ice growing
eastern sea ice growing
western land ice decreasing significantly
no additional sea ice on west
climate change affecting different areas differently
The collapse of Larson-B ice shelf
87% glacial peninsulas retreated since 1945
3250km2 disintegrated rapidly (almost enture shelf collapsed in just over a month)
appeared to be due to series of warm summer on Antarctic peninsula
Climate change - warming on the west
penguin colonies moved
increased colonisation of plants on newly exposed land
decline in krill
retreating glaciers and ice shelves on peninsula
glaciers flowing faster into sea as they break up - will cause sea level rise
some increases in snow fall
Why is ice expanding in some areas
increased snow and rain adds cooler, denser layer of water on the top
land ice melting forms floating ice bergs contributing to sea ice expansion
water becoming less saline due to storms freshening (ddesalinating) oceans
raises temperature needed for ice to form
climate change - impacts on ANtarctic ecosystems
increasing sea temperature
ocean acidification - disrupting food chains
expanding sea ice (some areas)
loss of sea and land ice
higher intensity of UV light
Responding to climate change
globally
agreements on climate change (Kyoto/ Paris)
energy conservation
renewable energy
locally
protect existing environment
monitor any changes in climate and ecosystem
threat - mineral extraction (why it doesnt take place)
extreme climate
isolated location
ice on land
shifting sea ice and ice shelves
1998 protocol on environmental protection to the Antarctic treaty (banning all mining for 50 years)
threat - extraction
china, Iran, India, and Russia all interested in mineral extraction
coal/ oil/ gas present - what they are most interested in
china taken a lead - build research station in centre of Antarctica to drill through ice
any extraction potentially massive environmental impact (unsustainable)
tech used in Arctic could be used in developing mining
minerals mainly found around coast
australia lays claim to almost half on Antarctica
new tech advances may lead to countries being more able to mine in Antarctica
threat - touism
massively increased in recent decades due to it being opened up from domestic to internaitonal
popular global leisure activity
since early 90s tourism continuously grown
2004 - around 700 million visitors
advances in tech mean its easier, quicker, and more affordable
Human activity in Antarctica regulated by Antarctic treaty
MS explorer (2007) - crashed and spilled diesel into Southern ocean
concerns about impact to ecosystem - mostly Antarctic peninsula (area most impacted by climate change)
rules about how many people allowed on land and how close they can go to wildlife
wildlife and ecosystems fragile - one small change can be catastrophic for a colony
threat - scientific research
researchers go to study many things e.g., wildlife, astronomy, weather and geology
conduct studies that cant be done elsewhere to help understanding of global environmental issues e.g., climate change, sea level rise
British antarctic survey world leader in polar research 1985 - discovered hole in ozone layer (leading to ban of CFCs)
Russia (Vostok) - southern pole changes in magnetosphere and climatology
McMurdo station (USA) - largest Antarctic station
range of research including ice cores, glaciology, ocean and climate systems
houses 1200
waste produced
clear large areas of ice e.g., McMurdo helicopter pads and landing strips
dogs permanently banned in Antarctica - brought diseases that impacted local wildlife
Governing Antarctica
resilience - the amount of disturbance an ecosystem can withstand without changing existing structures and processes
mitigation - actions, strategies, measures or projects undertaken to combat negative impacts of a process
adaptation - alteration/ adjustment in structure/ function of organism/ systems enabling it to better survive in changing conditions
Antarctic treaty system (ATS)
governs all areas south of 60 degrees south latitude (any area in antarctic circle)
signed 1959 by 12 nations - formalised free access, and research rights to all countries for the cause of scientific research and idea exchange
came into force 1961
very successful international agreement
effctive disarmament - prevented potential conflicts
Australia claimed 40%
now 54 nations - banning mining and militarisation
2048 up for review
ATS positives
one of few international agreements of 20th century to have succeeded
maintained spirit of peaceful international cooperation in Antarctica
limited environmental damage
no armed conflicts
permintted antarctic science to flourish
open for any member of UN or any country invited by treaty nations (however controlled mainly by HIC and developed countries)
ATS negatives
much of science conducted is poor and done to protect territorial rights to mineral extraction
no provision of benefits to countries unable to pay expensive scientific programmes
‘Rich man’s club’ - run be select group of developed countries for their own benefit
focused on easily resolvable issues (e.g., scientific cooperation) avoiding fundamental problems (e.g., competing territorial claims)
