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The endocrine system Flashcards

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1
Q

What does the endocrine system consist of?

A

Endocrine cells and tissues

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2
Q

What type of cells are endocrine cells?

A

Epithelial glandular cells surrounded by an extensive network of capillaries

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3
Q

What is the difference between endocrine and exocrine cell?

A

Endocrine release hormones directly into the blood stream whereas exocrine release secretions into epithelial surfaces via ducts

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4
Q

What is the difference between endocrine tissue and endocrine glands?

A

Endocrine tissues may have other functions apart from hormones secretion however endocrine glands exclusively produce hormones

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5
Q

Is the endocrine system slower or faster acting that the CNS?

A

Slower

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6
Q

What are the two main divisions of hormones?

A

Lipid-soluble and water soluble

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7
Q

What kind of hormones are steroid hormones?

A

Lipid-soluble

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8
Q

What kind of hormones are thyroid hormones?

A

Lipid-soluble

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9
Q

What kind of hormones are amine hormones?

A

Water-soluble

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10
Q

What kind of hormones are peptide hormones?

A

Water-soluble

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11
Q

What kind of hormones are protein hormones?

A

Water-soluble

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12
Q

What can hormones be generally described as?

A

Chemical messengers

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13
Q

What mechanism occurs when hormones reach their target cell?

A

They bind to receptors affecting metabolic or chemical reactions inside the cell

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14
Q

Where are the receptors for water-soluble hormones found?

A

On the cell membrane

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15
Q

Where are the receptors for lipid-soluble hormones found?

A

Inside the cell

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16
Q

Do most hormones work under a positive or negative feedback system?

A

Negative

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17
Q

What cellular changes do hormones usually produce?

A

MS MS E
Membrane: changes permeability, potential or both by opening or closing ion channels.
Synthesis: of enzymes and other proteins within the cell.

Mitosis: Stimulation
Secretory activity: Induction

Enzymes: Activation or deactivation

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18
Q

What macro processes do hormones affect?

A

Growth
Metabolism
Homeostasis
Development

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19
Q

What is the hypophysis?

A

The pituitary gland

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20
Q

What is the difference in tissue type between the anterior and posterior pituitary glands?

A

The anterior is an upgrowth of epithelial tissue from the pharynx

The posterior is a down growth of nervous tissue from the brain

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21
Q

What is the adenohypophesis?

A

The anterior pituitary gland

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22
Q

What is the neurohypophesis?

A

The posterior pituitary gland

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23
Q

What structures allow the hypothalamus to communicate with the posterior pituitary gland?

A

A network of nerve fibres

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24
Q

What blood supply does the anterior pituitary gland have?

A

An indirect arterial supply that has passed via the capillaries of the hypothalamus

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25
Q

Why does the blood supply for the anterior pituitary gland come via the hypothalamus?

A

To allow hormones from the hypothalamus to reach the anterior pituitary gland directly

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26
Q

What are tropic hormones?

A

Hormones that have other endocrine glands as their target

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27
Q

Where are most tropic hormones produced?

A

The anterior pituitary gland

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28
Q

What are the anterior pituitary gland hormones?

A

Growth hormone
Prolactin
Luteinising hormone (LH)
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

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29
Q

What is growth hormone?

A

A protein hormone that stimulates the growth of bone and muscle in growing children. It promotes protein synthesis and fat metabolism and acts as an insulin antagonist.

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30
Q

What is prolactin?

A

A protein hormone that is essential for lactation in the female.

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31
Q

What is luteinising hormone?

A

A glycoprotein that stimulates the production of testosterone in the testis, the ovulation and the secretion of oestrogen and progesterone by the ovary.

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32
Q

What is Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)?

A

A glycoprotein that stimulates the formation of sperm in the testis and the maturation of the ovarian follicles and oestrogen in the ovary.

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33
Q

What is Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)?

A

A glycoprotein that stimulates the synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones T4 and T3.

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34
Q

What is Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)?

A

An anterior pituitary gland peptide hormone that stimulates the synthesis and secretion of the glucocorticoid and adrenal androgens (sex hormones) by the adrenal cortex

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35
Q

What is the function of the posterior pituitary gland?

A

It stores hormones produced by the hypothalamus

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36
Q

What blood supply does the posterior pituitary gland have?

A

Direct arterial blood supply from the internal carotid (via the inferior hypophyseal artery)

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37
Q

What are the posterior pituitary hormones?

A

Anti diuretic hormone (ADH)
Oxytocin

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38
Q

What is Vasopressin or Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH) and when is it released?

A

A short peptide that is secreted by the posterior pituitary in response to elevated plasma osmolarity (high salt or low water content) or decreased blood volume. It increases the permeability of the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts to increase water retention.

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39
Q

What is oxytocin?

A

It stimulates uterine contraction during labour and the contraction of breast ducts during lactation

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40
Q

What gives the thyroid gland its colouration?

A

The thyroid gland is deep red due to large numbers of blood vessels

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41
Q

What is the macrostructure of the thyroid gland?

A

Two lobes connected by the isthmus covered by a fibrous sheet

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42
Q

What are the microstructures of the thyroid gland?

A

The thyroid gland is formed of small spherical sacs called thyroid follicles. The wall of the follicles consist primarily of cuboidal epithelial cells that are surrounded by a basement membrane. Parafolicular cells (C cells) lie inbetween follicles

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43
Q

What hormone affects the follicle cells in the thyroid?

A

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

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44
Q

Where is thyroid stimulating hormone producted and what stimulates it?

A

It is produced in the hypothalamus under the stimulating effect of the hypothalamic hormone Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH)

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45
Q

What are the two thyroid hormones?

A

Thyroxine (T4)
Tri-iodothyronine (T3)

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46
Q

How much of T4 and T3 respectively does the thyroid gland produce?

A

Mainly T4 and small amounts of T3

47
Q

Where is most T3 produced?

A

Outside the thyroid gland in other tissues such as liver, kidney and muscle

48
Q

Is T3 or T4 more active?

A

T3 is much more active

49
Q

What are the main functions of T3 and T4?

A

Regulate growth, development and reproduction
Stimulate metabolic activities (proteins, carbohydrates and fats) Energy production and utilisation
Increase sensitivity of the cardiovascular and nervous system to adrenaline and noradrenaline

50
Q

What are parafollicular cells?

A

C-cells. Cells in the thyroid gland that lie inbetween the follicles.

51
Q

What is calcitonin?

A

A thyroid hormone that lowers blood calcium levels by promoting the storage of calcium in bone tissue and inhibiting it’s re absorption in the kidneys

52
Q

What are the parathyroid glands?

A

Two pairs (four in total) of tiny rounded masses of tissue embedded in the posterior surfaces of the thyroid gland.

One superior and one inferior parathyroid gland are attached to the right and left thyroid lobes.

53
Q

What cells do the parathyroid glands contain?

A

Two types of epithelial cells, the more numerous chief cells which produce Parathyroid Hormones (PTH), and another form of cells which have an unknown function

54
Q

What is the main function of PTH?

A

To increase blood calcium levels (opposite to the action of calcitonin of the thyroid gland). This is achieved by increasing the calcium absorption from the small intestine and calcium reabsorption from the kidney tubules. It also releases calcium from bones into the blood by stimulating osteoclasts (bone-destroying cells).

55
Q

What is the structure of the adrenal glands?

A

Adrenal medulla and cortex surrounded by a capsule. Highly vascular

56
Q

What is the internal structure of the adrenal medulla?

A

Three different zones the outer, middle and inner

57
Q

What does the outer zone of the adrenal medulla produce?

A

Mineral corticoids

58
Q

What does the middle zone of the adrenal medulla produce?

A

Glucocorticoids

59
Q

What does the inner zone of the adrenal medulla produce?

A

Androgens

60
Q

What are androgens?

A

Sex hormones

61
Q

What is kind of hormone is aldosterone?

A

Mineralcorticoid steroid hormone

62
Q

What is the action of aldosterone?

A

It encourages sodium reabsorption, water retention and potassium excretion

63
Q

What levels stimulates aldosterone secretion?

A

High blood potassium

64
Q

Where is aldosterone synthesised and secreted?

A

The outer layer of the adrenal cortex, the zona glomerulosa

65
Q

What is the RAAS?

A

The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) is a well known regulator of blood pressure (BP) and determinant of target-organ damage. It controls fluid and electrolyte balance through coordinated effects on the heart, blood vessels, and Kidneys.

66
Q

What class of hormones are cortisol, corticosterone and cortisone?

A

Glucocorticoids

67
Q

What controls the secretion of glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol) from the adrenal gland?

A

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

68
Q

What are the main effects of glucocorticoids (cortisone and hydrocortisone)?

A

Glucose formation
Lipolysis
Stimulating protein catabolism
Promoting sodium and water retention
Suppression of immune responses
Delayed wound healing

69
Q

Where are weak sex hormones secreted?

A

By the adrenal cortex in both males and females, in small amounts

70
Q

Where does the adrenal cortex originate from?

A

It is a modified sympathetic ganglion of the ANS, with the same embryonic origin

71
Q

What will an extensive sympathetic stimulation of the adrenal medulla cause?

A

The release of adrenaline and noradrenaline

72
Q

In what proportion does the adrenal medulla release adrenaline and noradrenaline?

A

80% adrenaline
20% noradrenaline

73
Q

What is the structure of pancreatic tissue?

A

Clusters of pancreatic acini with pancreatic islets scattered within. Abundant capillaries serve both types of tissue.

74
Q

What is the distribution of acini and islets in the pancreas?

A

99% acini, 1% islets

75
Q

What is the endocrine tissue of the pancreas?

A

Islets

76
Q

What is the exocrine tissue of the pancreas?

A

Acini

77
Q

What is the function of pancreatic acini?

A

They produce digestive enzymes that are secreted into the GI tract through the pancreatic duct

78
Q

What types of cells are present in pancreatic islets?

A

Alpha (A)
Beta (B)
Delta (D)
F

79
Q

What is the function of pancreatic A cells?

A

Glucagon secretion

80
Q

What is the function of pancreatic B cells?

A

Insulin secretion

81
Q

What is the function of pancreatic D cells?

A

Somatostatin secretion

82
Q

What is the function of pancreatic F cells?

A

Pancreatic polypeptide secretion

83
Q

Where is somatostatin produced?

A

GI tract
Pancreas
Hypothalamus
CNS

84
Q

What is the function of somatostatin?

A

Inhibiting the secretion of both insulin and glucagon from the pancreas.
Inhibiting the secretion of of growth hormone (GH) from the anterior pituitary

85
Q

What does insulin enhance?

A

Oxidation and energy generation

86
Q

What does insulin increase?

A

Glycogenesis (formation of glycogen)

87
Q

What does insulin accelerate?

A

Protein synthesis and lipogenesis

88
Q

What does insulin decelerate?

A

Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

89
Q

How does insulin drop blood glucose?

A

-Enhancing oxidation and energy generation
-Increasing glycogenesis
-Accelerating protein synthesis
-Accelerating lipogenesis
-Decelerating glycogenolysis
-Decelerating gluconeogenesis

90
Q

What are examples of insulin antagonists?

A

Glucagon, adrenaline, cortisol and growth hormone all have insulin-antagonist effects

91
Q

How do insulin antagonists counter its effects?

A

Acting on the liver cells to speed glycogenolysis
Acting on the muscles to speed gluconeogenesis

92
Q

What are the gonads?

A

Male and female reproductive organs.
Ovaries and testes.

93
Q

What is the function of the gonads?

A

Gamete and hormone production

94
Q

What steroids do the ovaries produce?

A

Several steroid hormones including oestrogens and progesterone

95
Q

What is the purpose of female sex hormones?

A

Regulation of menstrual cycle, maintaining pregnancy, preparing mammary glands for lactation, development and maintenance of secondary sex characteristics

96
Q

What is the main hormone produced in the testes?

A

Testosterone

97
Q

What is the function of testosterone?

A

Stimulate descent of testes, regulation of sperm production, development and maintenance of secondary sex characteristics

98
Q

Where is the pineal gland located?

A

Attached to the third ventricle of the brain at the midline, part of the epithalamus

99
Q

How does the pineal gland develop?

A

Develops normally until after puberty when it tends to atrophy and my be calcified in later life

100
Q

What is the main hormone of the pineal gland?

A

Melatonin

101
Q

What are the functions of melatonin?

A

Not exactly know but believe to be involved in:
Circadian and diurnal rhythm of many tissues
Inhibition of growth and development of sex organs before puberty

102
Q

Does the endocrine system make precise or approximate adjustments?

A

Precise

103
Q

Which type of hormones have longer half lives and why?

A

Lipid-soluble as they must be transported by carrier proteins and their receptors lie inside cells.
They must be released from their transport proteins and then diffuse through the cell membrane

104
Q

Why are steroid proteins lipid-soluble and not water-soluble?

A

They are built around a cholesterol core and uncharged

105
Q

Why are steroid proteins lipid-soluble and not water-soluble?

A

They are built around a cholesterol core and uncharged

106
Q

Why are thyroid hormones lipid-soluble and not water-soluble?

A

They contain benzene rings which increase lipid-solubility and iodine atoms which decrease water-solubility

107
Q

Why are amine, peptide and protein hormones water-soluble and not lipid-soluble?

A

They are charged molecules which attract “spheres of hydration” and allow them to flow through water as a larger and therefore less lipid-soluble structure

108
Q

How does the hypothalamus transport hormones to the posterior pituitary?

A

Via a bridge of nerve axons called the hypothalamic–hypophyseal tract

109
Q

What stimulates the release of thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)?

A

Insufficient levels of thyroid hormone being available for the brain

110
Q

What do parafollicular cells do?

A

Produce Calcitonin

111
Q

What are pancreatic islets also known as?

A

Islets of Langerhans

112
Q

What are glucocorticoids named after?

A

Their roles in maintaining glucose homeostasis

113
Q

What are mineralcorticoids named after?

A

Their roles in maintaining electrolyte balance

114
Q

How is calcium homeostasis maintained?

A

Science for Paramedics (18 decks)

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