The Endocrine System Flashcards
Why is the endocrine system sometimes referred to as the neuro-endocrine system?
Because of its interactive nature with the nervous system and the endocrine system.
What is the psycho-neuro-endocrine system?
The whole person – nature of the body/mind relationship, that the endocrine system and glands are part of the whole body/mind interaction and do not act in isolation.
Name 6 functions of the endocrine system?
1) Maintaining internal environment
2) Maintaining homeostasis
3) Maintaining immunity and resistance to stress
4) Regulating metabolism
5) Growth and development
6) Reproduction
What are the 2 types of glands in the body?
Endocrine and exocrine
Name 4 differences between exocrine (OUT) and endocrine (IN) glands?
1) Exo have ducts leading from gland to target point; Endo do not
2) Exo secrete via ducts onto surfaces of the body eg skin; gut lining – Endo secrete directly into the blood
3) Exo secrete to specific target locations in the body – Endo secretions are carried more widely through circulation
4) Exo gland = sweat, sebaceous, mucus producing, digestive – Endocrine = hormones
NB – additionally Exo glands secrete fluids eg sweat, saliva, digestive juices
Name 5 Endocrine Glands? (think PPPTA)
1) Pineal
2) Pituitary
3) Parathyroid
4) Thyroid
5) Adrenals
Name 5 ORGANS which are not endocrine glands but contain endocrine cells? (think HOTTP – hott potato)
1) Hypothalamus
2) Ovaries
3) Thymus
4) Testes
5) Pancreas
Which organs of the body might you find aggregation of endocrine cells in? (SSKLHP)
1) Stomach
2) Small Intestine
3) Kidneys
4) Liver
5) Heart
6) Placenta
Why is it important as a CS therapist to have an awareness of the endocrine system – explain?
- Fundamental to maintaining healthy body and mind
- So structure and function are important to overall health and vitality of the persons system
How you as a CS therapist approach the endocrine system?
- Case history from patient
- Awareness of glandular function and dysfunction
- Identify restrictions to gland nerve supply, blood supply and drainage
- Identify tensions, restrictions to surrounding tissues – membrane; fascia; bone
- Identify energy restrictions to gland and surrounding tissues
- Awareness of interaction of glands in relation to each other – interactive nature
- Whole body CS integration
Give an example of the interactive nature of the endocrine system and explain?
Prolactin. On its own it has little impact on producing milk from the mammary glands. Other glands work to support mammary glands in producing milk:
Adrenals – provide oestrogen; progesterone; glucocorticoids
Pituitary – provides human growth hormone
Thyroid – provides thyroxin
Pancreas -provides insulin
How would you approach a client presenting with thyroid dysfunction?
- Emotional state – suppressed feeling; shock; holding something down
- Emotional centre holds
- Check pituitary gland
- Throat hold or fascia unwinding
- GP to check pituitary is producing sufficient TSH to stimulate thyroid function
What is the interaction and role between the pancreas, liver, adrenals?
- To maintain appropriate blood sugar levels
What does the Pituary gland do?
Pituitary gland controls all the activities of other endocrine glands in the body.
How is hormone secretion stimulated and inhibited? (3 ways)
1) Neurological stimulation e.g. via the adrenal medulla which is stimulated by the sympathetic division of ANS
2) Chemical levels in blood e.g. parathyroid glands stimulated by blood calcium levels
3) Hormone stimulation from other endocrine glands e.g. adrenal cortex stimulated by ACTH from pituitary
What is the Hypothalamus gland and its functions?
- An endocrine gland – secretes 9 hormones
- Regulates the pituitary gland through secretion of hormones (stimulation and inhibitory) and direct neurological stimulation.
- Links nervous system and endocrine system
- Regulates the autonomic nervous system
How many glands does the pituitary gland have?
- It is 2 glands – anterior and posterior
- AKA Hypothesis
Where is the Pituitary gland located?
Within the Sella turcica of the sphenoid body
Its stalk passes from the hypothalamus above
What is the Diaphragma Sella?
A membranous roof over the Sella Turcica which contains the pituitary gland.
The membrane is made of dura and arachnoid mater (which surrounds the brain)
The membrane encapsulates the pituitary gland and stalk so is bathed in CSF.
It releases secretions into the CSF as well as the blood.
Why is the tentorium significant when treating the pituitary gland?
The attachments of the superior and inferior leaf of the tentorium attach to the clinoid processes of the sphenoid.
The clinoid processes are in close proximity to the sphenoid body and sella turcica.
Any disturbances to the sphenoid, or the membranes surrounding the pituitary gland can restrict the free flow and free function of the pituitary. Intracranial membranes are all continuous.
What cranial nerve pathway would you associate with the pituitary gland and why?
Cranial Nerve II – Optic Nerve – optic nerve pathway, the optic chiasma is located anterior to the pituitary.
Dysfunction: pituitary tumour affecting medial fibres within the chiasma leading to tunnel vision.
What is the difference between the anterior and posterior pituitary?
Hypothalamus releases hormones to regulate the anterior pituitary gland which then secretes many hormones which target mostly other endocrine glands.
Hypothalamus provides direct neural stimulation to the posterior pituitary gland which then stores and secretes two hormones with specific effects.
Name hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland?
Human Growth Hormone (HGH); Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH); Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH); Luteinising Hormone (LH); Prolactin; Adrenocorticotrophic (ACTH); Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH).
What would some of the effects be of anterior pituitary dysfunction?
Effect growth patterns and metabolism – dwarfism; gigantism; overactivity in adults causing thickening of bones (acromegaly) – think JAWS.
Name hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary gland? REMEMBER 2
Antidiuretic Hormone – retains water in body
Oxytocin – contracts uterus muscles and mammary glands – released during birth when prostaglandins are released and cervix compression. Nipple stimulation through suckling by baby.
What would some of the effects of posterior pituitary dysfunction be?
Diabetes Insipidus – under action of Antidiuretic hormone – over produces urine = increased thirst. Risk of dehydration.
Causes – head trauma; brain surgery.
What is the CS approach to treating the pituitary gland?
Case history – tunnel vision; head trauma; hormone issues; thyroid issues;
Connect with sphenoid; diaphragma sella; tentorium and surrounding membranes; CSF; venous drainage and nerve supply.
Energy drive to the gland itself – through nasion; bregma; pterions.
Therapeutic attention to gland and surrounding structures.
Integration of whole body.
Free expression of CS rhythms of all tides.
Contacts – bowl hold;
Describe everything you know about the pineal gland?
Size of a pea, shaped like a cone located in the pineal recess in the posterior (back) and superior (high) wall of the 3rd ventricle. Enveloped in a capsule of pia mater.
Produces the hormone Melatonin which can be secreted into the blood or into CSF.
Melatonin induces sleep; relaxation.
Sunlight stimulates sympathetic supply via superior cervical sympathetic ganglion (from T1/T2) which causes pineal gland to INHIBIT melatonin secretion = lack of sleep/ more awake.
Darkness causes pineal to secrete melatonin inducing sleepiness.
Function unclear – possible regulates whole endocrine system but also circadian rhythms.
Tend to be inhibitory (whereas pituitary is opposite and stimulates other glands)
Known issues linked to melatonin - SAD (seasonal affective disorder); insomnia; jet lag.
Describe everything you know about the Thyroid gland?
Located in throat
2 lobes each side of thyroid cartilage, on sides of trachea, isthmus runs below thyroid cartilage and connects 2 lobes.
Nerve supply - via Superior Cervical Sympathetic Ganglion from T1/T2
Hormones x 4 inc T3 and T4
Regulates basal metabolic rate
Regulates calcium levels in blood
What are the 2 main functions of the Thyroid Gland?
Regulates basal metabolic rate (BMR)
Regulates calcium levels in blood
How does the thyroid gland regulate BMR?
Thyroid is stimulated by TSH from ANTERIOR pituitary.
Thyroid then produces T3 and T4.
T3 and T4 work together to regulate BMR, energy levels and heat production.
How does the thyroid gland regulate Blood Calcium Levels?
Thyroid produces Thyrocalcitonin to lower levels of calcium in blood to promote bone formation.
(Given in osteoporosis to increase bone density)
(Given additionally when blood calcium levels are high)
What is Hypothyroidism?
Under active thyroid hormone secretion
Decreased BMR = increased weight; bowel changes; skin -dry; low blood pressure; lethargic; cold.
Sometimes enlarged thyroid gland (goitre)
Bulging eyes (fatty tissue deposits behind eyes)
Lack of iodine in diet.
If arises in childhood = Cretinism (lack of development of brain and skeleton)
What is Hyperthyroidism?
Over active thyroid hormone secretion
Increased BMR = weight loss; bowel changes; nervousness; restlessness; anxiety; heat; sweating; increased heart rate with palpitations.
Can lead to graves disease.
Enlarged goitre.
Can be triggered by shock; stress; infectious diseases;
What is a Goitre?
Enlarged thyroid gland
Why would the thyroid gland become enlarged (goitre)?
Iodine deficiency; infection; tumours; hyper and hypo thyroidism; thyroiditis
What is a simple goitre?
Enlargement of gland with no disturbed function.
- increase iodine intake
What is an Exophthalmic goitre?
Enlargement of gland with disturbed function - hyperthyroidism symptoms - bulging eyes
How would you approach CS treatment for the thyroid AND parathyroid glands?
Check information from medical tests
Check any genetic predisposition
Check diet (iodine)
Check psycho-emotional & physical factors - shock; stress; infections; tumours
Check quality of throat, neck and thyroid
Check for tensions; restrictions; nerve pathways (sympathetic pathway from T1 to SCSG)
Check energy flow; free mobility and fluid flow.
Throat contact; throat unwinding
Emotional centres contact for stress; shock
Whole CS integration!
Where are the parathyroid glands?
4 small glands on posterior surface of thyroid gland
What do the parathyroid glands do?
Work with thyroid to regulate blood calcium levels.
Secrete Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
If calcium levels in blood falls = PTH
1) stimulates release of calcium from bones
2) stimulates kidneys to store calcium
3) stimulates hormones in intestines to absorb calcium from food
What are symptoms of inadequate parathyroid hormone?
Muscle twitches; muscle spasm; convulsions = tetany
What are the symptoms of excessive parathyroid hormone in the blood?
Too much calcium from bones released = soft bones.
Where is the thymus gland?
Located behind manubium and upper sternum and in front of the heart, between lungs.
Children it is large - largest age 12 then atrophies
What hormone does thymus gland produce and why?
Thymosine - in central thymus to support maturation of T cells.
What is the function of the thymus gland?
Primary lymphatic organ.
Primal role in immune response.
Develops T cells - white blood cells to fight bacteria and viruses.
Some T cells mature in thymus throughout life.
Operates with other immune related organs - spleen; tonsils; adenoids; appendix; lymph nodes.
So only a small endocrine component.
How and why would you CS treat the thymus?
For people with low immunity.
Location - associated with restrictions and tensions in upper thorax (physical & emotional).
Heart Centre
Thoracic Inlet
Emotional centres (thymus readily affected by stress)
Upper thoracic spine.
Thymus Chakra located right of centre level with T1/T2 - people with lowered immunity tend to feel tight/ restricted in this area.
Attention to heart centre; thymus chakra; thymus gland - tissues; blood supply, nerve supply to boost immunity.
Where is the pancreas
Head at the curve of duodenum
Body runs behind and below stomach
Tail close to spleen
NB( tail more significant in endocrine system - endocrine cells are only 1% of pancreas in the tail, next to spleen)
What is the nerve supply to the pancreas?
Sympathetic - T6 to T10 via Coeliac Plexus
Parasympathetic - Vagus (right)
What is the function of the pancreas?
Exocrine function - secretion of pancreatic juices via pancreatic duct into duodenum to breakdown and digest proteins and carbs.
Endocrine function - in the tail of the pancreas are Islets of Langerhans containing x 4 types of cells which produce hormones eg glucagon and insulin which have various roles.
What does the hormone glucagon do?
Stimulates breakdown of glycogen in cells & raises blood sugar levels.
What does the hormone insulin do?
Stimulates glucose uptake by cells to lower blood sugar levels.
Which organ are the hormones glucagon and insulin found?
Pancreas
What is insulin deficiency called?
Diabetes Mellitus
What are the symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus
Thirst; excess urine production; increased eating; high blood sugar levels and low energy. Leads to poor healing; blindness; haemorrhage.
What are the different types of Diabetes Mellitus
Type 1 - early onset & insulin dependent
Type 2 - late onset & non insulin dependent (diet controlled)
How would you treat the pancreas from CS approach?
Case history - pancreatic function & blood sugars/ diabetes.
Late onset - CS integration with specific pancreas awareness to location; structures surrounding; nerve supply, blood supply.
Nerve supply - T6 to T10 via Coeliac Plexus.
AP mid thoracic spine to pancreas
AP contact to tail of pancreas
Attention to Islets of Langerhans
Energy Drive
Emotional factors
What is hyperinsulinism?
When a diabetic injects too much insulin (or caused by tumour) leading to severe HYPO glycaemia. Insulin excess leads to excess uptake of glucose causing low blood sugars. Leads to secretion of adrenaline, glucagon and HGH = anxiety, sweating, increased blood pressure, mental disorientation and death if blood sugars not elevated immediately.
Why might you need to have an awareness of diabetes as a therapist?
Need to be aware of symptoms of hypo and hyperglycaemia.
Need to be aware that regular treatment may influence response to medication.
Describe the 2 Adrenal Gland structures within the adrenal glands?
Adrenal Cortex - outer portion of each gland - processes different hormones.
Adrenal Medulla - inner portion of each gland and secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline.
Which adrenal hormone is vital to life?
Adrenal cortex - without can lead to death through dehydration and electrolyte imbalance.
Where are the adrenals located?
Top of each kidney, outside peritoneum and level with T12 to L1. Right side kidney will sit slightly lower because of liver sitting superiorly.
What nerve supplies the adrenal cortex?
Sympathetic nerve supply from T9 to T12 via the coeliac plexus.
Parasympathetic supply from vagus.
What is the sympathetic nerve supply to the adrenal medulla?
Passes directly from sympathetic spinal chain to medulla WITHOUT synapsing. Why? Enables quicker hormone release - direct fight/flight response - quicker.
Why is the hormone cortisol important and which gland would it relate to?
Relates to: Adrenal Cortex
Why important: regulates carbohydrate metabolism and glucose levels
What is Cushings Syndrome
Cortisol excess - raises blood sugar levels = poor wound healing; bruising easily; reduced resistance to stress and mood swings.
What can cortisol insufficiency cause?
Low blood sugars - HYPOglycaemia - weight loss; weakness; anaemia.
What is Virulism
Excess of androgen secretions - early development of secondary sex characteristics.
What does the Adrenal Medulla secrete?
Adrenaline 80% and Noradrenaline 20%
Why is Adrenaline/ Noradrenaline secreted?
In direct response to sympathetic stimulation - T9 to T12 via Coeliac plexus WITHOUT synapse. Also in response to low blood sugar - they work with pancreas to mobilse glucose from glycogen stores. Inhibit insulin secretion. Release fat from cells to use for fuel.
How does stress affect the Adrenergic System?
Any physical activity or any psycho-emotional event (stress) stimulates the sympathetic system by increasing heart rate; blood pressure; constricting blood vessels; dilate airways; decrease digestion; increase blood sugars. It prepares the body for action. If the blood sugars are used up, body can return to normal levels. But if sugar levels are not used up because system keeps being stimulated by stress and producing raised sugar levels, sugar intoxication can occur.
What is the result of sugar intoxication on the body?
Raised BMR and blood pressure; sweating; recurrent headaches; strain on pancreatic cells; eventual kidney and retinal damage.
How would you treat the adrenals or adrenal condition?
Whole body/mind person - CS integration
Address underlying causes - stress - physical/emotional
Sacrum - adrenals - T9
Solar Plexus/Coeliac Plexus
What is the function of the ovaries
Produce oestrogen and progesterone which help regulate the female reproductive cycle, maintain pregnancy, prepare mammary glands for lactation. Production of ova.
During pregnancy, ovaries and placenta produce relaxin - dilate cervix.
What is the function of the testes?
Produce testosterone to regulate sperm production.
Name some organs of the body which have small aggregations of endocrine cells? (Known as DIFFUSE Endocrine System).
Gastro-intestinal tract - secrete or inhibit gastric juices; peristalsis; secretes pancreatic juices; release of bile - (fullness after eating).
Kidneys - increase red blood cell production; absorb calcium
Heart - Decreases blood pressure
Placenta - HcG, Oestrogen and Progesterone
