The Biological Molecules Flashcards
The building block of life because these atoms are the basis for forming the structures of living things and carries out most of life’s functions
Carbon
Organic molecules AKA
Macromolecules
Chain of carbon atoms
Carbon skeleton
Subunit of complex molecules
Monomer
When monomers link together, they form complex molecules called
Polymers
Connecting monomers to form polymers happens through a process called ___, which removes the water
Dehydration reaction
Polymers are disassembled or broken down by the addition of water called
Hydrolysis reaction
Carbohydrates produce and is made up of?
Produces: Sugar and starch
Made of: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
Lipids produce and is made of?
Produces: Fats and oils
Made of: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
Nucleic acids produce and is made of?
Produces: Nucleotides
Made of: Carbon Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus
Proteins produce and is made of?
Produces: Amino acids
Made of: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
❖most abundant organic
compounds
❖ composed of C, H and O in the
ratio of 1:2:1
❖ Hydrate of Carbon
Carbohydrates
Four Chemical Groupings of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides
❖ monomers or simple sugars
❖ building block of carbohydrate polymer and
other biological molecules
❖ C6H12O6
❖ Examples: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose
❖ Grains, fruits, vegetables
Monosaccharides
Complex sugars made up of two molecules of monosaccharides chemically joined together
❖ Two molecules of simple sugar bonded together
by Glycosidic Bonds (a bond joining a
carbohydrate molecule to another)
❖ Combined two monosaccharides through a
condensation process
❖ Examples: Lactose (milk sugar), Sucrose, Maltose
❖ Most abundant: Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose)
❖ Sucrose is abundant in honey, sugar cane, maple
trees, and sugar beets
Disaccharides
A bond joining a
carbohydrate molecule to another
Glycosidic Bonds
Combined two monosaccharides through a
Condensation process
Glucose + Galactose
- found naturally in milk
Lactose
Glucose + Glucose
- malt sugar
Maltose
Glucose + Fructose
- table sugar
Sucrose
❖ made up of anywhere from two to ten
monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic
bonds.
❖ found in plants
❖ used as a partial substitute for fats and
sugars in some food
❖ used to improve the texture of food
❖ Onions are rich in oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides
❖ consist of hundreds of linked monomers of glucose or other simple sugars
Polysaccharides
most important carbohydrate storage in plants
- stored form of sugar in plants
- made up of amylose (15-20%, unbranched chain) and
amylopectin (80-85%, branched)
starch
most abundant biological molecule in nature
cellulose
major substance in exoskeleton of arthropods and mollusks
chitin
main storage form of carbohydrates in animals
glycogen
The starch consumed by humans is broken down by enzymes into simple form (maltose and glucose) —
cells then absorb the glucose
salivary amylase
- present in cell wall of plants
- made of glucose monomers
linked by β 1-4 glycosidic bonds - in grazing animals (ruminants) –
appendix contain a bacteria that
digest cellulose - in humans, no cellulose —
cellulose passes as such in stool
cellulose
- made of repeating units of
N-acetyl-β-d-glucosamine,
a modified sugar - major component of
arthropods (insects, crabs,
shrimps) exoskeleton - major component of
fungal cell wall
Chitin
- storage form of sugar in humans/animals
- made up of monomers of glucose
- joined by α 1-4 with α 1-6 glycosidic bonds
- stored in the liver and muscle cells
glycogen
Whenever blood glucose levels decrease, glycogen is broken
down to release glucose
Glycogenolysis
Monosaccharide
Glucose, fructose, galactose
Simple sugar molecule
Dissacharide
Sucrose, maltose, lactose
Two sugar molecules linked
Polysaccharide
Starch, glycogen, cellulose
Many sugar molecules linked
Dissolve in water and slow down digestion to give you that “full feeling”
Soluble fiber
Add bulk to diet and help with constipation, have that “laxative” benefit
Insoluble fiber
Good complex carbs example
Whole grain bread, brown rice, beans, nuts/seeds, oatmeals, fruits, vegetables, sweet potato, quinoa
Bad simple carbs example
White bread, brown/white sugar, white rice, fruit juices, muffins, candies, cookies, pretzels, chip, sugary cereals
Disadvantage of consuming too many carbohydrates
- Weight gain
- Increased type 2 diabetes risk
- Poor appetite control
- Fluctuating energy levels
- Permanent cell and organ damage
Promote nutritional well-being through education, help prevent and treat nutrition-related problems
Dietitan
❖ make certain food oily
❖ Lipids found in the body keep us warm.
❖ include fats, oils, waxes, steroids, and
phospholipids
❖ They function as energy storage, as components of membranes, as insulation barriers to avoid thermal, electric, and physical shock; as lipoprotein that facilitates the transport of lipids in blood; as waterproof coating, and as chemical messengers.
Lipids
Main types of lipids:
Fats & oils and Phospholipids & Steriods
Formation of lipids consists of ____ bonded to ____ molecule
3 fatty acids, one glycerol
Lipids are also known as
Triglycerides
Most animal fats
Solid at room temperature
Fats with saturated fatty acids are saturated fats
Plants and fish fats AKA ____
Liquid at room temperature
Oils. Fats with unsaturated fatty acids are unsaturated fats
These are found in fried foods, commercial baked goods, processed food and margarine
Trans-fatty acids
❖nutrient reserves in animals and plants
❖contain two basic units:
-Fats and oils
-Glycerol and fatty acids
– corn oil, canola oil, olive oil
(yellowish in color; liquid form at room
temp.)
Plants, Fats and Oils
lard and butter (whitish in color; solid at room temp.)
Animals, Fats and Oils
A three-carbon alcohol with three hydroxyl groups attached to each carbon
Highly soluble in water
GLYCEROL
Long chains of carbon atoms attached to a carboxyl group
Carbon length: short, medium or long
Importance in the diet: essential or nonessential
Number of double bonds: unsaturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated
FATTY ACIDS
❖consists of glycerol molecule, a phosphate
group, and two fatty acids
❖ cell membranes are made of a bilayer of
phospholipids
Phospholipids
The shape of the phospholipid molecule is
like a ____ with ____.
Head (Glycerol phosphate; hydrophilic)
Two tails (Fatty acids; hydrophobic)
- major component of the
cell membrane - composed of fatty acid
chains attached to a
glycerol/phosphate head
Phospholipids
❖ organic compounds with four rings arranged
in a specific configuration
❖ found in cell membranes and functions in
maintaining the fluidity of cell membranes
and in signaling functions
❖ Examples: Sterols and Terpenes
Steroids
They have important roles in cellular structure, cellular communication, and metabolism.
Sterols
Primary constituents of the essential oils of many plants and flowers.
Found in plant pigments Carotene and Lycopene
Related to terpenes are Vits. A, D, E, and K, which are essential for blood clotting and maintenance of structural integrity
TERPENES
- covers the feathers of birds and leaves of plant
- waterproof coating for animals and plants
- made of long chain fatty acids esterified to long-chain
alcohol
Waxes
➢ building block of protein
➢ derived from the Amino Group and the
Carboxyl Acid Group
➢ 20 amino acids present in proteins
Amino acids
long chain of amino acids, called
POLYPEPTIDE
Each amino acid is attached to
another amino acid by a covalent
bond, known as ___, which is formed by a ____ reaction.
Peptide Bond, dehydration
The products formed by such linkages
are called
peptides
As more amino acids join the growing chain, the resulting chain is known as
Polypeptide.
Each polypeptide has a free Amino
Group at one end which is called the
N terminal or Amino Terminal
The other end has a free Carboxyl
Group, also known as the
C Terminal or Carboxyl Terminal.
After Protein Synthesis
(translation), most proteins are
modified. These are known as ___.
post-translational modifications
4 Levels of Protein Organization
Primary Structure, Secondary Structure, Tertiary Structure, Quarternary Structure
➢ is simply the order of amino acids in
a polypeptide strand
➢ the main determinant of the overall
structure of the protein and
determines its ultimate biological
function
Primary structure
➢ Because of this change of one amino
acid, hemoglobin molecules form
long fibers that distort the biconcave
or disc-shaped red blood cells and
assume a crescent or “____” shape,
which clogs arteries.
Sickle
➢ refers to the local three-dimensional
folding of the polypeptide chain in
the protein
a. Alpha Helix (spiral)
b. Beta Sheet (pleated sheet)
➢ varying arrangements of (weak
hydrogen bonds) are responsible for
these configurations
Secondary Structure
➢ formed when the distant segments of
a primary structure and the
relationship of the side chains are
bound in a three-dimensional folding
of the entire polypeptide chain.
➢ stabilized by both non-covalent
(hydrophobic interactions,
electrostatic bonds, hydrogen bonding,
van der Waals forces), and covalent
(disulfide) bonds.
Tertiary Structure
➢ the fitting together of two or
more polypeptide chains,
eventually forming a ____
➢ stabilized by the same bonds as
those in tertiary level
➢ examples: keratin and
hemoglobin
functional protein. Quarternary Structure
Sequence of a chain of amino acids
Primary protein structure
Hydrogen bonding of the peptide backbone causes the amino acids to fold into a repeating pattern
Secondary protein structure
Three-dimensional floating pattern of a protein due to side chain interactions
Tertiary protein structure
Protein consisting of more than one amino acid chain
Quaternary protein structure
It gives strength and support to tissues
Structural
Carry substances around cells or from cell to cell
Transport
Gene regulation
Regulatory
Facilitate chemical reactions
Enzymes
Protect the body from foreign pathogens/antigen
Antibodies
Chemical messengers
Hormones
➢ most important
macromolecules for the
continuity of life
➢ they carry the genetic
blueprint (“code of life”) of a
cell and carry instructions for
the functioning of the cell
➢ TYPES:
1. DNA
2. RNA
Nucleic acids
➢ genetic material found
in all living organisms
➢ controls all of the
cellular activities by
turning the genes “on”
or “off”
➢ exists as a double helix
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
____ and ____ published in 1953 the classic paper that describes ___ as a ___.
James Watson, Francis Crick, DNA, double helix
contain the information to make protein products and code for RNA products.
Gene
➢ mostly involved in protein
synthesis and regulation :
rRNA, tRNA and microRNA
➢ DNA molecules never leave
the nucleus but instead use an
intermediary to communicate
with the rest of the cell :
mRNA
RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
monomers that make up DNA and RNA.
Nucleotides
formed when nucleotides are combined with each other.
Polynucleotides
Components of Nucleotide:
- Nitrogenous Base
- Pentose (5-carbon) Sugar
- Phosphate Group
➢ organic molecules that contains carbon and Nitrogen
➢ they are bases because they contain an
amino Group that has the potential of
binding an extra Hydrogen, thus decreases
the hydrogen ion concentration in its
environment making it more basic
➢ Each nucleotide contains 1 of 4 Nitrogenous Bases: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T)
Nitrogenous Base
contains A, T, G and C
DNA
contains A, U, G and C
RNA
➢ Sugar and Phosphate lie on the outside of the helix forming the backbone of the DNA
➢ A certain Purine can only pair with a
certain Pyrimidine
➢ A-T and G-C
➢ Base Complementary Rule
DNA Double-Helix Structure
➢ Nitrogenous bases, in pairs, are bound to each other by ____ and are
stacked in the interior like staircase.
____.
Hydrogen bonds. Pairing is specific
If the sequence of one strand is GGC-
CTT-GGA-ACC-TTA, the complementary strand would have the sequence _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
TACGAACT
DNA Strands are ___ to
each other.
complementary
➢ mainly involved in the process of protein
synthesis under the direction of DNA
➢ usually single-stranded and is made of
Ribonucleotides that are linked by ____.
RNA. Phosphodiester Bonds.
➢ carries the message from DNA, which
controls all of the cellular activities in a
cell.
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
If the DNA Strand is AAT-TGG-CCA-GTT-
CAA-ATT, the sequence of the complementary RNA is _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _.
mRNA is read in sets of three bases
known as
Codons
Each codon codes for a
single amino acid.
the mRNA is ___ and the protein
product is ____
mRNA:read , protein product:made
➢ major constituents of ribosomes
on which the mRNA binds
➢ ensures the proper alignment of
the mRNA and the ribosomes
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
➢ one of the smallest among the
four types of RNA, usually 70-90
nucleotides long
➢ it carries the correct amino acid
to the site of protein synthesis
➢ it is the base pairing between
the tRNA and mRNA that allows
for the correct amino acid to be
inserted in the polypeptide chain
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
➢ the smallest RNA molecules
➢ their role involves the regulation of gene
expression by interfering with the expression of certain mRNA messages
Micro RNA (miRNA)
Information Flow of an Organism
➢ DNA → RNA → Protein
DNA dictates the structure of mRNA
in a process known as
Transcription
DNA/Structure of mRNA:Transcription
RNA/Structure of protein: Translation
RNA dictates the structure of
protein in a process known as
Translation
DNA/Structure of mRNA:Transcription
RNA/Structure of protein: Translation
This is known as the ____, which holds true for all organisms. Exception to the rule occur in connection with viral infections.
Central Dogma of Life
Serve as the energy source and structural components of organisms
Carbohydrates
Is the energy storage anf structural macromolecules
Lipids
Polymers that if amino acids linked by peptide bonds
Proteins
Blueprint for proteins
Nucleic acids: DNA & RNA
Most enzymes are
Protein
