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Anatomy and Physiology > Test 7 Respiratory and Digestive Systems > Flashcards

Test 7 Respiratory and Digestive Systems Flashcards

1
Q

What are four (4) functions of the respiratory system?

A
  1. Gas exchange
  2. Regulating blood pH
  3. Filters and conditions inspired air
  4. Produces sounds
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2
Q

What are the three (3) phases of respiration?

A
  1. Pulmonary ventilation
  2. External (pulmonary) respiration
  3. Internal (tissue) respiration
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3
Q

What is pulmonary ventilation? (2 components to answer)

A

(1) Inhalation and exhalation of air and (2) the exchange of air between atmosphere and the alveoli of lungs

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4
Q

What is external (pulmonary) respiration?

A

exchange of gases between alveoli of the lungs and the blood in pulmonary capillaries across the respiratory membrane

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5
Q

What is internal (tissue) respiration?

A

exchange of gases between blood in systemic capillaries and tissue cells

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6
Q

What is the direction of gas movement in external (pulmonary) respiration? (2 components to answer)

A

(1) pulmonary capillary blood gains O2 and (2) loses CO2

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7
Q

What is the direction of gas movement in internal (tissue) respiration? (2 components to answer)

A

(1) blood loses O2 and (2) gains CO2

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8
Q

Trace the path of an air molecule to the alveoli (9 steps)

A
  1. Mouth or Nostril
  2. Pharynx
  3. Larynx
  4. Trachea
  5. Bronchi
  6. Bronchial Tubes
  7. Bronchioles
  8. Alveoli
  9. Pulmonary Capillaries
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9
Q

Where is the pharynx located? (3 components to answer)

A

(1) posterior to the nasal and oral cavities, (2) superior to the larynx and (3) anterior to the cervical vertebrae

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10
Q

Describe the lining of the pharynx (2 components to answer)

A

(1) Its wall is composed of skeletal muscles and (2) is lined with a mucous membrane

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11
Q

What are the three (3) regions of the pharynx?

A
  1. Nasopharynx
  2. Oropharynx
  3. Laryngopharynx
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12
Q

Where is the nasopharynx located? (3 components to answer)

A

Posterior to nasal cavity, inferior to sphenoid, superior to palate

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13
Q

What is the purpose of the uvula?

A

To close nasopharynx when swallowing

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14
Q

What is the only opening into the oropharynx?

A

Fauces; the opening from the mouth

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15
Q

Where is oropharynx located?

A

Extends from soft palate to hyoid bone

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16
Q

Where is laryngopharynx located?

A

Extends from level of hyoid bone and opens to esophagus/larynx.

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17
Q

What are three (3) functions of the larynx?

A
  1. Keep airway open
  2. Separate air route from food
  3. Speech
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18
Q

Describe the location of the larynx

A

(1) anterior to esophagus, (2) inferior to hyoid bone and (3) superior to trachea

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19
Q

What is the largest cartilage of the larynx?

A

Thryoid cartilage

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20
Q

What is the technical name for the Adam’s apple?

A

Laryngeal prominence

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21
Q

What is the smaller cartilage located below the thyroid cartilage?

A

Cricoid cartilage

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22
Q

Where is the cricoid cartilage located?

A

Between trachea and thyroid cartilage

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23
Q

What structure of the larynx is protected by thyroid cartilage?

A

Vocal cords

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24
Q

What are three smaller cartilages located on the posterior larynx?

A
  1. Arytenoid cartilage
  2. Cunneiform cartilage
  3. Corniculate cartilage
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25
Where is the epiglottis located?
(1) Posterior to tongue and (2) superior to thyroid cartilage
26
What's the function of the epiglottis
To keep food from entering larynx
27
What tissue is the epiglottis made of?
Elastic tissue
28
What are the two types of vocal cords?
1. Vocal folds (true vocal cords) | 2. Vestibular folds (false vocal cords)
29
What is the glottis?
Region of vocal folds and space between them
30
What is inflammation of the vocal cords called?
Laryngitis
31
Where is trachea located? (2 components to answer)
(1) Inferior to larynx and (2) posterior to heart
32
What tissue type lines the trachea?
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
33
What is purpose of goblet cells in the trachea? (2 components to answer)
(1) To make mucous to moisten air and (2) trap microbes
34
What is characteristic of the cartilage in the trachea
C-shaped hyaline cartilage that surround trachea anteriorly
35
What are two (2) benefits of the cartilage in the trachea
1. Keep trachea open | 2. Allow esophagus to expand into trachea if needed
36
What is the y-shaped junction of the trachea called?
Carina
37
What are the four (4) layers of the trachea lining from deep to superficial?
1. Mucosa 2. Submucosa 3. Hyaline cartilage 4. Adventitia (areolar connective tissue)
38
What is the trachealis muscle? (3 components to answer)
(1) Transverse smooth muscle fibers (2) that run along posterior trachea (3) to allow diameter of trachea to change during inhalation and exhalation
39
How is the bronchial tree organized? (4 components to answer)
(1) Trachea splits into primary bronchi (Left and Right); (2) primary bronchi split into secondary bronchi; (3) secondary (lobar) bronchi split into tertiary (segmental) bronchi; (4) terminal ends are called bronchioles
40
What are the size of bronchioles?
< 1 mm
41
How does cartilage change as you move down the bronchial tree?
(1) C-shaped cartilage of trachea is replaced by cartilage plates; (2) Cartilage plates are replaced by elastic fibers in bronchioles
42
How does tissue change as you move down the bronchial tree?
(1) Pseudostratified ciliated columnar is replaced by simple cuboidal tissue
43
How does cilia change as you move down the bronchial tree?
There is not much cilia in bronchioles
44
How does mucous production change as you move down the bronchial tree?
No mucous cells in the bronchioles
45
How does muscle change as you move down the bronchial tree?
More smooth muscle as diameter decreases because there is more air resistance.
46
What are three types of cells found in alveoli (3 components)
1. Type I cells 2. Type II cells 3. Macrophages
47
What is the purpose of Type I cells in alveoli? (2 components to answer)
(1) They are simple squamous and (2) are involved in gas exchange
48
What is the purpose of Type II cells in alveoli?
Secrete surfactant
49
What is the purpose of pulmonary surfactant? (3 components to answer)
(1) Reduce surface tension to (2) keep it from collapsing alveoli and (3) also increase pulmonary compliance
50
What is the respiratory membrane?
Junction between alveolar epithelium and pulmonary capillary epithelium
51
What is the olfactory mucosa? (2 components to answer)
(1) Epithelium lining superior aspect of nasal cavity that (2) contain chemoreceptors for sense of smell
52
What is the purpose of the nasal conchae? (3 components to answer)
(1) Swirl air to (2) trap particles in mucous as well as to (3) warm and moisten (condition) air
53
What are three (3) regions of left lung?
1. Superior Lobe 2. Inferior Lobe 3. Cardiac notch
54
What are three (3) regions of right lung?
1. Superior Lobe 2. Middle Lobe 3. Inferior Lobe
55
What is the lung root? (6 components to answer)
(1) The root of the lung formed by the (2) bronchus, (3) pulmonary artery, (4) pulmonary veins, (5) bronchial arteries and veins and (6) other vessels.
56
What is the apex of the lung? (2 components to answer)
(1) The rounded superior portion of superior lobe of lung (2) that extends near clavicle.
57
What is the base of the lung? (2 components to answer)
(1) Broad, inferior portion of lung (2) that rests near diaphragm
58
What is the costal surface of the lung? (2 components to answer)
(1) lateral, posterior and anterior surface of the lung (2) that lies adjacent to the ribs
59
What is the area between the lungs called?
Mediastinum
60
What is the hilum?
An indentation on mediastinal surface of lung housing lung root
61
What is the pleura?
A double walled fluid filled sack
62
What is the distinction between parietal and visceral pleural?
1. Visceral pleura lines the lung | 2. Parietal pleura lines the thoracic cavity
63
What is contained within the pleura?
Pleural fluid
64
What is an excess of pleural fluid called?
Pleurisy
65
How many bronchopulmonary segments are in each lung?
Right: 10 segments Left: 9 segments
66
What is Boyle's law?
Volume is inversely proportional to pressure
67
What muscles are used in inhalation? (3 components to answer)
1. Diaphragm 2. External intercostal muscles 3. Pectoralis minor, sternocleidomastoid, scalenes [accessory muscles]
68
How does inhalation occur? (2 components to answer)
(1) Muscles contract to increase volume and (2) create a vacuum which causes air to flow into lungs
69
What muscles are used in normal exhalation?
None; passive process because of elasticity.
70
What two (2) muscles are used in forced exhalation?
1. Abdominals | 2. Internal intercostals
71
When does air stop flowing into lungs during inhalation?
When intrapulmonary pressure equals atmospheric pressure
72
How does asthma make breathing more difficult?
Causes constriction of bronchioles which increases resistance.
73
What is lung compliance?
Stretchiness of lungs
74
What are four (4) factors that can reduce lung compliance
1. Scarring or disease 2. Reduced surfactant production 3. Decreased flexibility of thoracic cartilage 4. Blockage of respiratory passages
75
What is tidal volume (TV)?
Peak-to-peak of normal volume of inhalation and exhalation
76
What is inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)?
Max volume during forced inhalation
77
What is expiratory reserve volume (ERV)?
Min volume during forced exhalation
78
What is residual volume (RV)?
Volume that cannot be expired
79
What is "dead space" in pulmonary ventilation?
Air that does not contribute to gas exchange.
80
Name the two (2) types of dead space in pulmonary ventilation and describe them
1. Anatomical dead space (air that fills passageways) | 2. Physiological dead space (Alveoli fail to exchange gases
81
What is minute ventilation?
Total amount of gas that flows in or out of the respiratory tract in one minute
82
What is a spirometer?
Instrument used to measure lung volumes
83
How does exhalation occur? (2 components to answer)
(1) Muscles relax and lungs recoil, decreasing volume and increasing pressure; (2) air flows out of lungs until intrapulmonary pressure equals atmospheric pressure.
84
What is the function of intrapleural pressure? (2 components to answer)
(1) The negative pressure (about 4 mmHg less than alveolar pressure) of intrapleural space prevents complete collapse of the lungs and (2) adheres it to thoracic cavity
85
What is the ventral respiratory group (VRG)?
Respiratory center in Medulla Oblongata that is the pace setter for normal respiration rate.
86
What are the two respiratory centers in the medulla oblongata?
1. Ventral Respiratory group | 2. Dorsal Respiratory group
87
What two (2) nerves are stimulated by the VRG and what muscles are innvervated by these nerves?
1. Phrenic nerve - Diaphragm | 2. External Intercostal Muscles - Intercostal nerves
88
What is the dorsal respiratory group (DRG)?
Respiratory center in Medulla Oblongata for forced or strenuous breathing
89
What two (2) muscles are stimulated by the DRG for forced inspiration?
1. Sternocleidomastoid | 2. Scalenes
90
What two (2) muscles are stimulated by the DRG for forced exhalation?
1. Internal intercostal muscles | 2. Abdominals
91
What respiratory center is located in the pons?
Pontine respiratory group (PRG)
92
What are two functions of the Pontine Respiratory Group?
1. Fine-tines breathing rate and depth | 2. Prevents over-inflation of the lungs
93
What is the hering-breuer reflex?
A reflex triggered to prevent over-inflation of the lungs during large inspriations
94
What is Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures?
Total pressure is the sum of all partial pressures
95
What three (3) factors affect diffusion in external respiration?
1. Partial pressure gradients and gas solubilities 2. Ventilation-Perfusion Coupling 3. Structure of respiratory membrane
96
What two (2) forces try to collapse the lung?
1. Lung elasticity | 2. Alveolar surface tension
97
What is ventilation-perfusion coupling? (2 components)
If there is low oxygen in alveoli, capillaries constrict; if there is high oxygen in alveoli, capillaries dilate.
98
How does the structure of the respiratory membrane affect diffusion?
More surface area facilitates more diffusion.
99
Describe the composition of alveolar air relative to atmospheric air (3 components)
1. More H20 2. More Co2 3. Less O2
100
What is oxyhemoglobin?
Hemoglobin carrying oxygen molecules
101
How is oxygen transported and in what relative amounts? (2 ways)
1. Hemoglobin (98.5%) | 2. Dissolved in plasma (1.5%)
102
What is hemoglobin saturation?
Percent of hemoglobin that are oxyhemoglobin.
103
What is the relationship between hemoglobin saturation and partial pressure of oxygen?
Increased partial pressure of oxygen increases hemoglobin saturation
104
What is the relationship between partial pressure of oxygen in a region and the hemoglobin saturation of blood coming from that region?
Decreased partial pressure results in decrease hemoglobin saturation because oxygen is unloaded to the oxygen-poor region.
105
What four (4) factors decrease hemoglobin saturation?
1. Increased temperature 2. Increase partial pressure of Carbon Dioxide 3. Increased H+ 4. Increased BPG (product of glycolysis)
106
What is a technical definition of Hypoxia?
Hemoglobin saturation is below a certain level.
107
What are four (4) causes of hypoxia?
1. Anemic hypoxia (poor oxygen delivery) 2. Ischemic hypoxia (impaired blood circulation) 3. Histotoxic hypoxia (cells unable to use oxygen) 4. CO poisoning
108
Why is more oxygen unloaded from hemoglobin during exercise?
partial pressure of oxygen in cells decreases because they are using it
109
How is carbon dioxide transported and in what relative amounts? (3 ways)
1. Dissolved in plasma (7%) 2. Bound to hemoglobin (20% 3. Bicarbonate ions (73%)
110
What is carbaminohemoglobin?
Hemoglobin with oxygen attached to globin.
111
What is significant about the way oxygen attaches to hemoglobin?
It does not attach quickly at first but once the first oxygen attaches the the other three oxygen attach quickly.
112
What is carbonic anhydrase?
An enzyme that catalyses the reaction between water and carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid
113
What is meant by chloride shift in respiration?
When carbonate ion (HCO3-) leaves hemoglobin it is replaced by Cl-.
114
What happens to carbonic acid at the lungs?
It leaves hemoglobin and is broken down into water and carbon dioxide.
115
What is COPD and what are two diseases that are categorized under this?
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease 1. Chronic Bronchitis 2. Emphysema
116
Describe the harm of chronic bronchitis
Overproduction of mucous and inflammation blocks airways
117
Describe the harm of emphysema (2 components)
(1) Loss of alveolar walls decreases surface area and decreases gas exchange; (2) Loss of lung elasticity makes it harder to exhale.
118
What is asthma and how is it treated?
(1) inflammation of air ways and (2) it is treated by corticosteroids
119
What causes tuberculosis?
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
120
What is the leading cause of lung cancer?
About 90% is caused from smoking
121
What makes lung cancer especially deadly?
It is aggressive -- fast and wide metastasis.
122
What are the five (5) functions of the digestive system?
1. Ingestion 2. Propulsion 3. Digestion 4. Absorption 5. Defecation
123
What product is produced by chemical breakdown of carbohydrates?
Monosaccharides
124
What two (2) products are produced by chemical breakdown of lipids?
1. monoglycerol | 2. fatty acids
125
What product is produced by breakdown of proteins?
amino acids
126
What product is produced by breakdown of nucleic acids?
Nucleotides
127
What is the function of amylase?
Breakdown carbohydrates into disaccharides
128
What is the function of chymotrypsin?
Finish breakdown of proteins
129
What is the function of trypsin?
Finish breakdown of proteins
130
What is the function of lactase?
Breakdown the disaccharide lactose
131
What is the function of maltase?
Breakdown the disaccharide maltose
132
What is the function of nuclease?
Breakdown nucleic acids
133
What is the function of pepsin?
Breakdown proteins in stomach
134
What is the function of peptidase
Breakdown of proteins
135
What is the function of sucrase?
Breakdown of disaccharide sucrose
136
What is the function of trypsin?
Finish breakdown of proteins
137
Describe the five (5) boundaries of the oral cavity
1. Anterior: Oral orifice; Lips 2. Posterior: oropharynx 3. Inferior: tongue 4. Superior: palates 5. Lateral: cheeks
138
What are two (2) digestive functions of the tongue?
1. Food manipulation for chewing | 2. Swallowing
139
What is the six (6) part pathway of the digestive system?
1. Mouth 2. Pharynx 3. Esophagus 4. Stomach 5. Small intestines 6. Large intestines
140
What is dentition?
arrangement, kind and number of teeth at a given age
141
What is the dentition of the deciduous teeth?
20 nonpermanent teeth
142
What is the dentition of permanent teeth?
32 permanent teeth
143
What are four (4) kinds of teeth?
1. Incisors 2. Cuspids 3. Bicuspids 4. Molars
144
What is the function of incisors
Cutting
145
What is the function of cuspids
Canines: tear and pierce
146
What is the function of bicuspids
premolar: grind and crush
147
What is the function of molars
grind and crush
148
How is a bolus prepared? (2 components)
Teeth masticate food into small pieces and tongue mixes it with saliva
149
What are three (3) major salivary glands
1. Parotid 2. Submandibular 3. Sublingual
150
Where is the parotid salivary gland located?
Anterior to the ear
151
Where is the submandibular salivary gland located?
Medial to mandible
152
Where is the sublingual salivary gland located?
Inferior to the tongue
153
What nerves innervate the major salivary glands?
Facial (VII) and Glossopharyngeal (IX) nerves
154
What is produced by parotid salivary glands?
Watery-saliva filled with enzymes
155
What is produced by submandibular salivary gland?
Viscous saliva filled with enzymes
156
What is produced by sublingual salivary gland?
Mucous
157
How is parotid salivary gland drained?
Ducts deliver saliva to region of the molars
158
How is submandibular salivary gland drained?
Ducts deliver saliva to sublingual region
159
How is sublingual salivary gland drained?
Ducts deliver saliva to floor of the mouth
160
Where does digestion start and with what enzyme?
In the mouth with amylase
161
What is the optimal pH of amylase?
6.7-7.0
162
What are five muscles of mastication?
(MMBLT) 1. Masseter 2. Medial Pterygoid 3. Buccinator 4. Lateral Pterygoid 5. Temporalis
163
What nerve innervates Masseter?
Trigeminal (V)
164
What nerve innervates Medial pterygoid?
Trigeminal (V)
165
What nerve innervates Buccinator?
Facial (VII)
166
What nerve innervates Lateral pterygoid?
Trigeminal (V)
167
What nerve innervates Temporalis?
Trigeminal (V)
168
List the four (4) layers of the GI tract wall (deep to superficial)
1. Mucosa 2. Submucosa 3. Muscularis 4. Serosa
169
Describe the GI mucosa (3 components)
(1) Simple columnar epithelium that (2) secretes mucous, hormones, enzymes and (3) absorbs nutrients
170
Describe the GI submucosa (5 components)
(1) Dense connective tissue that (2) contains glands, (3) lymphatics, (4) blood vessels and (5) nerves
171
Describe the GI muscularis
Two or three layers containing circular and longitudinal muscles; stomach contains the third oblique layer.
172
What is a sphincter?
A thickened portion of the muscularis that closes separate areas
173
Describe the GI serosa of the abdominopelvic region (2 components)
(1) Visceral peritoneum (2) made of loose connective tissue
174
Describe the GI serosa of the thoracic region (3 components)
(1) Adventitia made of (2) fibrious connective tissue to (3) hold esophagus
175
Where is the esophagus located?
Posterior to trachea in mediastinum.
176
What is the esophageal hiatus?
Opening in diaphragm that esophagus passes through
177
Describe the muscularis of the esophagus (three regions)
1. Beginning: Skeletal muscle 2. Middle: Mixed skeletal and smooth muscle 3. End: Smooth Muscle
178
What is the gastroesophageal sphincter?
Sphincter at junction between esophagus and stomach
179
What are two other names for gastroesophageal sphincter?
1. Lower esophageal sphincter | 2. Cardiac sphincter
180
What is the first part of the stomach called?
Cardia
181
What is the apex of the stomach called?
Fundus
182
What is the large middle portion of the stomach called?
Body
183
What is the end of the stomach called?
Pylorus
184
What is the "external" curve of the stomach called?
Greater curvature
185
What is the "internal" curve of the stomach called?
Lesser curvature
186
What are gastric rugae?
Folds in the stomach that allow it to expand when needed
187
What are gastric pits?
Indentation in stomach which are entrances into tubular shaped gastric glands
188
What are four (4) types of gastric glands?
1. Mucous neck cells 2. Parietal cells 3. Chief cells 4. Enteroendocrine cells
189
What do mucous neck cells produce?
thin mucous containing bicarbonate
190
What two (2) things do parietal cells produce?
HCl and intrinsic factor
191
What two (2) things do gastric chief cells produce?
1. Pepsinogen | 2. Lipase
192
What does enteroendocrine cells produce?
Gastrin
193
what does gastrin do?
control secretion of gastric acid (HCl)
194
What are three (3) ways the stomach prevents self-digestion?
1. Mucosal barrier containing bicarbonate 2. Tight junctions between cells 3. Quickly replacing dead cells
195
Describe enzymatic digestion of protein in the stomach (3 steps)
(1) HCl partially activates pepsinogen; (2) partially activated pepsinogen activates another partially activated pepsinogen forming pepsin; (3) pepsin catalyzes protein digestion.
196
What nerve innervates the stomach?
Vagus (X)
197
What are the three regions of the small intestine in order?
1. Duodenum 2. Jejunum 3. Ileum
198
What is peristalsis?
movement of food by smooth muscle contraction
199
What are villi in the small intestine?
Finger like protrusions to increase surface area
200
What are central lacteals?
A lymphatic capillary that absorbs dietary fats in villi of small intestine
201
What are microvilli?
Finger like protrusions on villi to increase surface area
202
What are plicae circularis?
Corkscrew circular folds on small intestine to help chyme move
203
What is chyme?
What the bolus becomes once the stomach has mechanically digested it
204
What is chyle?
Lymph containing fats
205
What four (4) small intestine enzymes are involved with carbohydrate digestion?
1. Pancreatic amylase 2. Sucrase 3. Lactase 4. Maltase
206
What three (3) small intestine enzymes are involved with protein digestion?
1. Peptidase 2. Trypsin 3. Chymotrypsin
207
What are brush border enzymes?
Enzymes on the brush border (microvilli) that break disaccharides into monosaccharides.
208
What are the four (4) lobes of the liver
1. Left 2. Right 3. Caudate 4. Quadrate
209
What connects left and right lobes of liver?
Falciform ligament
210
What is the major digestive function of the liver?
Produce bile
211
What is the major digestive function of the gallbladder?
Store and release bile
212
Describe the flow of bile in a healthy person (4 regions)
1. Bile flows from Left and Right Hepatic Duct into Common Hepatic Duct 2. Bile flows from gallbladder through cystic duct 3. Gallbladder and liver ducts merge to form common bile duct 4. Bile enters small intestine through sphincter
213
What is the optimum pH for pancreatic enzymes
7.0-8.0
214
What are three (3) structures of the pancreas?
1. Head 2. Tail 3. Pancreatic Duct
215
Where is the pancreas located
Retroperitoneal inferior to the stomach (located in the loop of the duodenum)
216
What are two types of cells in the pancreas
1. Acinar Cells | 2. Epithelial Cells
217
What do acinar cells produce?
Enzymes
218
what do pancreatic epithelial cells produce?
bicarbonate
219
What six (6) enzymes are in the pancreatic juice?
1. Amylase 2. Chymotrypsin 3. Carboxypeptidase 4. Lipase 5. Nuclease 6. Trypsin
220
Describe the structures large intestine in order
1. Ileocecal valve 2. Cecum 3. Ascending Colon 4. Transverse Colon 5. Descending Colon 6. Sigmoid Colon 7. Rectum
221
What are two differences between small and large intestine mucosae?
1. Large intestine does not have circular folds | 2. Large intestine does not have villi beyond ileocecal valce
222
What is deglutition
swallowing
223
What is mastication?
chewing
224
What is the greatest omentum?
Double layer of peritoneum extending over greater curvature
225
What is the lesser omentum?
Double layer of peritoneum extending from liver to lesser curvature
226
What is the mesentery?
A fold of membranous tissues that attaches to intestinal tract and contains blood vessels.
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What is the mesocolon?
The fold of peritoneum (or mesentery) attached to colon.
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Where is the appendix located?
Attached to cecum
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What are haustra?
Small pouches in colon
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What are teniae coli?
Longitudinal ribbons of smooth muscles running along colon
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What is segmentation in the small intestine?
Short segments of intestine contract which increase contact with the food, increasing absorption, as well as moving it along.
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How does the Sympathetic nervous system effect the digestive system?
Decrease activity
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How does the parasympathetic nervous system effect the digestive system?
Increase activity
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What causes the release of bile?
Duodenum releases Cholecystokinin (CCK) which causes gall bladder contractions
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What is the role of secretin in digestion? (3 components)
(1) Produced in duodenum and (2) regulates secretions by stomach and pancreas, (3) as well as water homeostasis.

Anatomy and Physiology (7 decks)

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