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Anatomy and Physiology > Test 2 Histology, Skeleton/Joints, Muscles > Flashcards

Test 2 Histology, Skeleton/Joints, Muscles Flashcards

1
Q

7 characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

A

closely packed, form sheets of tissue, reproduce rapidly, open apical surface, basement membrane, supported by connective tissue, nerves and no blood vessels

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2
Q

What does “simple” tissue mean

A

single layer

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3
Q

What does “stratified” tissue mean

A

multilayered

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4
Q

What does “squamous” tissue mean

A

squashed, flat

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5
Q

What does “cuboidal” tissue mean

A

square, cube

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5
Q

6 connective tissue functions

A

connect (tendon), support (bone), protection (cartilage), insulation (fat), fuel (fat), transportion (blood)

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6
Q

What does “columnar” tissue mean

A

tall, skinny, column

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8
Q

What is mesenchyme?

A

stem cell of all connective tissue

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9
Q

What does avascular mean?

A

no blood supply

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10
Q

Why do surface cells reproduce rapidly?

A

on surface we lose cells rapidly

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11
Q

What is the basal lamina?

A

sticky sheet due to glycoproteins

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12
Q

How is epithelial tissue nourished?

A

diffusion from connective tissue

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13
Q

What are three (3) parts of connective tissue?

A
  1. ground substance(matrix)
  2. Fibers
  3. Cells
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14
Q

What is the ground substance/matrix?

A

holds cells and fibers in place so nutrients can diffuse from blood vessel to cells

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15
Q

What are three (3) fiber types

A
  1. collagen (strong)
  2. elastic (stretchy)
  3. Reticular (thin and branching)
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16
Q

What are four (4) connective cell types

A
  1. fibrocytes
  2. chondrocytes
  3. osteocytes
  4. hematopoietic stem cell
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17
Q

What are three (3) cartilage types

A
  1. Hyaline (weakest)
  2. Fibro (strongest)
  3. Elastic (Flexible)
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18
Q

What are two (2) Bone types

A
  1. Compact (strength)

2. Spongy (blood cell)

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19
Q

What are three (3) Blood cell classifications

A
  1. erythrocytes (hold gas)
  2. leukocytes (phagocytize antigens)
  3. thrombocytes (clot blood)
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20
Q

What are three (3) loose connective tissue types?

A
  1. areolar (phagocytize)
  2. adipose (insulate)
  3. reticular (lymph net)
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21
Q

What are two (2) Dense Connective tissue types?

A
  1. Regular (connect in one direction)

2. Irregular (dermis, strong in many directions

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22
Q

What are four (4) Muscle characteristics

A
  1. muscle cells (spindles)
  2. long and thin
  3. well vascularized
  4. cells composed of microfilaments
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23
Q

What are three (3) Muscle types

A
  1. Skeletal
  2. Cardiac
  3. Smooth
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24
Q

What are three (3) Skeletal muscle characteristics

A
  1. Multinucleate
  2. striations
  3. voluntary
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25
Q

What are four (4) Cardiac musclecharacteristics

A
  1. Uninucleate
  2. striations
  3. intercalated discs
  4. involuntary
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26
Q

What are three (3) Smooth muscle characteristics

A
  1. uninucleate
  2. no striations
  3. involuntary
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27
Q

What are two (2) functions of nervous tissue

A
  1. conduct impulses to and from brain

2. regulate and control body functions

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28
Q

What are three (3) organs of Nervous System

A
  1. Brain
  2. Spinal Cord
  3. Nerves
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29
Q

Describe a neuron (3 components)

A
  1. nerve cell
  2. tree like branches
  3. composes nerve
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30
Q

Which direction does the axon conduct electricity?

A

carries electricity away

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31
Q

Which direction does the dendrite conduct electricity?

A

carries electricity towards cell body

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32
Q

What are three 3 classes of Epithelial membranes and give an example of each

A
  1. Cutaneous (skin)
  2. Mucous (digestive)
  3. Serous (pericardium)
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33
Q

What are the two (2) skeletal classifications by locations

A
  1. Axial (skull, ribs)

2. Appendicular (limbs, pectoral and pelvic girdle)

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34
Q

What are four (4) bone classifications by shape?

A
  1. Long (finger bones)
  2. Short (tarsals)
  3. Flat (scapula)
  4. Irregular (vertebrae and coxal)
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35
Q

What are six (6) Functions of Bones

A
  1. Shape of body
  2. Support (support soft tissue)
  3. Protection (vertebrae
  4. Movement (tendons muscle to bone)
  5. Mineral storage
  6. Hematopoiesis
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36
Q

What are two (2) types of bone tissue and where are they located?

A

primary tissue found in bones

  1. compact - outer and shaft
  2. spongy - ends of long bones
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37
Q

What is the diaphysis of a bone?

A

shaft

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38
Q

What is the medullary cavity of a bone?

A

middle of diaphysis, adult contains yellow marrow

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39
Q

What is theepiphysis of a bone?

A

ends of bone

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40
Q

What is the function of articular cartilage?

A

cover/cushions epiphysis

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41
Q

What is the epiphyseal line?

A

remnant of epiphyseal plate

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42
Q

What are nutrient foramen?

A

holes in shaft for blood vessels, nerves and lymph vessels

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43
Q

What is the endosteum?

A

connective tissue lining of medullary cavity

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44
Q

What is the periosteum?

A
  1. outer (fibrous) layer - rich in blood vessels, nerves and lymph
  2. inner (osteogenic) layer - osteoblasts and osteoclasts
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45
Q

What is yellow marrow?

A

fills medullary cavity with fat

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46
Q

What is red marrow?

A

in adults femur, humerus, sternum and hip

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47
Q

Describe the Osteon (haversian) system

A

functional unit of bone, elongates cylinders

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48
Q

What are lamella?

A

tubes surrounding central canal

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49
Q

Describe the Central (haversian) System

A

middle of osteon, contains nerves and blood vessels

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50
Q

What is the Perforating (Volkmann’s) Canal?

A

connect (perpendicular to) central canal

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51
Q

What are osteocytes?

A

mature bone cells that divide lamella

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52
Q

What are lacunae?

A

cavity between lamella contains osteocytes

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53
Q

What are canaliculi?

A

canals that connect lacunae

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54
Q

What is the function of interstitial lamellae?

A

fills gaps between osteon

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55
Q

Describe spongy bone composition (2 components)

A
  1. functional unit is trabeculae

2. lamella and osteocytes are part of honey comb-like cavities

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56
Q

What is the function of osteoblasts?

A

Bone-forming stem cells

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57
Q

What is the osteoid?

A

ground material (matrix), glycoproteins and collagen fibers

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58
Q

What are hydroxyapatites?

A

crystal formed from calcium phosphates

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59
Q

What hormone controls bone remodeling?

A

parathyroid hormone

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60
Q

What is a compound fracture?

A

breaks skin

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61
Q

What is a simple fracture?

A

doesn’t break skin

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62
Q

What is an incomplete fracture?

A

not broken across whole bone

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63
Q

What is a displaced fracture?

A

ends of bones out of alignment

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64
Q

What are four (4) Steps of Simple fracture repair

A
  1. Hematoma formation
  2. Fibrocartilaginous callus forms
  3. bony callus formation
  4. bone remodeling
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65
Q

What are four (4) steps of hematoma formation?

A
  1. bone breaks
  2. blood vessels break
  3. blood clots
  4. bone cells die
66
Q

What are two (2) steps of fibrocartilaginous callus formation?

A
  1. phagocytes clean debris

2. fibroblasts make collagen fibers to connect ends of broken bone

67
Q

How does bony callus formation occur and when does it occur?

A

osteoblasts from periosteum and endosteum make spongy bone, begins 3-4 weeks after injury and lasts 2-3 months

68
Q

What are the three (3) steps of bone remodeling?

A
  1. form medullary cavity
  2. form compact bone in shaft
  3. new linings of endosteum and periosteum
69
Q

What is a synarthrosic joint?

A

immovable, fibrous suture

70
Q

What is a amphiarthrosic joint?

A

cartilaginous, slightly movable (clavicle, vertebrae)

71
Q

What is a diarthrosic joint?

A

synovial, freely movable

72
Q

Describe the structure of a synovial joint (4 components)

A
  1. articular cartilage (covering)
  2. synovial cavity (space between bones)
  3. articular capsule (encloses cavity)
  4. synovial fluid (lubrication), ligament (bone to bone)
73
Q

What is flexion?

A

bending, decreases angle

74
Q

What is extension?

A

straightening, increases angle

75
Q

What is abduction?

A

moving away from midline

76
Q

What is adduction?

A

moving toward midline

77
Q

What is rotation?

A

turning, twisting

78
Q

What is circumduction?

A

circular (many coordinated muscles)

79
Q

What is depression?

A

move down

80
Q

What is elevation?

A

move up

81
Q

What is supination?

A

palm up

82
Q

What is pronation?

A

palm down

83
Q

What is protraction?

A

forward

84
Q

What is retraction?

A

backward

85
Q

What is dorsiflexion?

A

toes up

86
Q

What is plantarflexion?

A

toes down

87
Q

What is inversion?

A

bottom of foot in

88
Q

What is eversion?

A

bottom of foot out

89
Q

What is the origin of a muscle?

A

immovable point of attachment

90
Q

What is the insertion of a muscle?

A

movable point of attachment

91
Q

Define the primer mover (agonist) muscle

A

leading muscle for action of interest

92
Q

Define the antagonist muscle

A

opposes prime mover

93
Q

Define synergists muscles

A

help prime mover (more force or stabilizes)

94
Q

Define fixator muscle

A

stabilize bones like scapula

95
Q

What does maximus mean

A

large

96
Q

What does minimus mean

A

small

97
Q

What does longus mean

A

long

98
Q

What does brevis mean

A

short

99
Q

What does major mean

A

larger or above

100
Q

What does minor mean

A

smaller or below

101
Q

Describe rectus muscle fibers

A

straight muscle fibers

102
Q

Describe transverse muscle fibers

A

90 degrees

103
Q

Describe oblique muscle fibers

A

45 degrees

104
Q

What is the naming convention for a muscle by location of attachment?

A

origin first, insertion second

sternocleidomastoid

105
Q

What is meant by the action of a muscle

A

flex, extend, abduct, etc.

106
Q

Describe four (4) muscle functions

A
  1. movement (contract)
  2. posture (oppose gravity)
  3. stabilize joint
  4. heat (by product of ATP production)
107
Q

What are four (4) Muscle Charateristics

A
  1. excitability (nervous system)
  2. contractility (ability to shorten)
  3. elasticity (recoil)
  4. extensibility (stretch)
108
Q

What is the muscle organization from biggest to smallest?

A
  1. Muscle surrounded by epimysium
  2. Fascicle surrounded by perimysium
  3. Muscle cell surrounded by endomysium
  4. Myofibril containing microfilaments
109
Q

Tendon connects what to what?

A

muscle to bone

110
Q

What is the sarcolemma?

A

muscle cell membrane

111
Q

What is a sarcomere?

A

one contractile unit, divided into I, A, and H bands

112
Q

What is a crossbridge?

A

place where actin (active site) and myosin attach

113
Q

Define the A band

A

length of myosin

114
Q

Define the I band

A

light band, space between myosin

115
Q

Define the H zone

A

space between actin

116
Q

Define the Z line or Z disc

A

ends of sarcomere, anchors actin

117
Q

What is stored in sarcoplasm

A

stored glycogen and myoglobin (O2)

118
Q

Where is sarcoplasmic reticulum located?

A

surrounds myofibril

119
Q

Where are terminal cisternae located and what is their function?

A

ends of SR, stores calcium

120
Q

Where are T tubules located?

A

extend deep into myofibril

121
Q

What is a triad?

A

2 terminal cisternae flanking T tubule

122
Q

Describe the nucleus of skeletal muscle cells

A

large and many per cell

123
Q

What is a motor unit?

A

1 nerve cell and all muscle fibers it attaches to

124
Q

What is a muscle twitch?

A

single brief stimulus

125
Q

What is summation of muscle cells?

A

combined twitches. similar to tetanus

126
Q

Describe the all or none response of a muscle cell

A

whole cell must contract

127
Q

What is recruitment in a muscle?

A

summation of motor units

128
Q

What is the threshold stimulus for a muscle?

A

minimum stimulus needed to contract

129
Q

What is a myogram?

A

muscle graph

130
Q

What is the latent period of myogram?

A

after stimulation, before contraction

131
Q

What occurs biochemically during period of contraction of a muscle?

A

crossbridges active

132
Q

What initiates period of relaxation biochemically?

A

initiated by calcium ion uptake back into S.R.

133
Q

What is isometric contraction?

A

increase tension, muscle length stays same

134
Q

What is isotonic contraction?

A

same tension and muscle length changes

135
Q

What is the angle at which muscle is strongest?

A

90 degrees

136
Q

What causes muscle fatigue?

A

not enough energy to relax

137
Q

What is rigor mortis?

A

stiffening after death due to no ATP

138
Q

What are contractures?

A

continuous contraction in the living

139
Q

What is meant by oxygen debt?

A

lack of O2 after and during exercise

140
Q

What energy source is used during first 4-6 seconds of exercise?

A

stored ATP

141
Q

What energy source is used during 0-15 seconds seconds of exercise?

A

creatinine phosphate

142
Q

What energy source is used during 30-40 seconds of exercise?

A

anaerobic respiration

143
Q

What energy source is used during 60+ seconds of exercise?

A

aerobic then reverse until exhaustion

144
Q

What are three (3) adaptions to exercise

A
  1. improve physical and psychological wellbeing
  2. increases capillaries
  3. increases mitochondria
145
Q

How are sheets of cells formed? (2 ways)

A
  1. tight junctions

2. desmosomes

146
Q

What are three (3) types of muscle contractions?

A
  1. concentric
  2. eccentric
  3. isometric
147
Q

Describe concentric contraction

A

Muscle is actively shortening

148
Q

Describe eccentric contraction

A

Muscle is actively lengthening

149
Q

Describe isometric contractions

A

Muscle is actively held at a fixed length

150
Q

Describe actin

A

A thin, contractile protein filament, containing ‘active’ or ‘binding’ sites.

151
Q

Describe myosin

A

A thick, contractile protein filament, with protusions known as Myosin Heads.

152
Q

Describe tropomyosin

A

An actin-binding protein which regulates muscle contraction.

153
Q

Describe troponin

A

A complex of three proteins, attached to Tropomyosin.

154
Q

What neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction to initiate a muscle contraction?

A

Acetylcholine

155
Q

What happens when acetylcholine is released into the neuromuscular junction?

A

Depolarisation of the motor-end plate results in Ca2+ release from the sacroplasmic reticulum

156
Q

What molecular change occurs when contractile protein filaments are in the presence of high concentrations of Calcium?

A

Ca2+ binds to troponin which causes tropomyosin to move, revealing the active sites on actin.

157
Q

What molecules are attached to myosin in its resting state?

A

ADP and Phosphate

158
Q

What occurs when the active sites on actin are first exposed?

A

myosin filaments attach to actin and release phosphate, forming a cross bridge

159
Q

What happens once a cross bridge is formed between actin and myosin? [ratchet mechanism]

A

Power stroke: ADP is spent to pull the actin filaments closer together.

160
Q

What happens once the ADP is spent in the “power stroke” phase? [ratchet mechanism]

A

Recovery stroke: ATP attaches and is hydrolyzed to form ADP and phosphate, returning myosin to its resting position.

161
Q

When does the ratchet mechanism stop?

A

When the nerve impulse stops, calcium pumps and ATP pump calcium back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, returning actin to its resting position.

Anatomy and Physiology (7 decks)

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