Test 3 Flashcards
emarginations
post skull grooves for muscle attachment
testudines timeline
start late permian (thick ribs), shell forms and by late jurassic we get a modern turt
stem turtles
eunotosaurus (thick ribs), pappochelys (forms plastron), eorhynchochelys, odontochelys start to develop more carapace. first actual shell = proganochelys
carapace composition
dermal bone covered in keratin scutes, neural arches of vert are fused to it
plastron composition
gastralia, pectoral girdle, epidermal scutes
testudine breathing
contract muscles and squeeze viscera up to exhale, relax to inhale. cannot breathe when retracted. alt respiration: skin, cloaca, buccopharyngeal
posterior limiting membrane
the back of the turtle body cavity
when turtles cant breathe what happens
R-L cardiac shunt to bypass lungs
cryptodira
turtles with sagittal neck retraction
pleurodira
side-neck turtles
turtle life history
very slow. small ones mature 7-8 and live to 15, large are similar to humans. lay 5-100 eggs typically.
turtle fights
raise their heads to see who is the strongest. can hiss, roar
turtle courtship
have tactile, visual (like stripes), olfactory cues. subdentary gland in males. need female cooperation due to the mechanics of reproduction
turtle eggs/young
ESD. males are in cool weather OR medium (depends on spp). no parental care. young emerge all at once, coordinate w vibrations.
turtle senses
use magnetism, the waves, the light, and chemosensation to orient themselves and know home beach.
archosauria
includes crocs, birds, non-avian dinosaurs, and pterosaurs. trend towards parasagittal gait and bipedalism
archosaur synapomorphies
antorbital fenestration, thecodont dentition, 4th trocanter on femur (for bipedalism muscle), loss of palatal teeth
pseudosuchia
crocodilians. have crurotarsal/crocodyloid ankle where joint is btwn calcaneus and astragalus. allows erect or sprawling posture
avemetatarsalia
lineage that includes birds, non-avian dinos, pterosaurs. bends ankle btwn tarsals and metatarsals. convergent with mammals
phytosaurs
convergent body plan with crocodylians in triassic-jurassic, their nostrils are close to eyes instead of being at the end of snout
early crocodylomorpha time
jurassic-cretaceous. longer hindlimbs, somewhat bipedal, thinner
cretaceous stem crocs
some were massive, some aquatic, araripesuchus = galloping crocodile
modern crocodylians
alligatoridae, crocodilidae, gavialidae
ghara
bulbous noses on male gharials, used to hiss
crocodilian locomotion
erect or sprawling posture, pelvic girdle is not firmly fused to the spine so pressure with back limbs is difficult and hindlimbs only steer when swimming while tail is a paddle
crocodilian dentition
thecodont, homodont, polyphyodont
croc jaws
strong bite force, jaw muscle behind head = ventral pterygoidus (4000 lbs bite force)
croc predation strat
ambush predators. inertial feeding. death roll to tear pieces off large prey
foramen of panizza mechanism
pressure from blood pumping out of left side usually keeps blood from entering thru hole, when this pressure dec the deoxy blood can shunt into system. also when the circuit switches the cog tooth valve closes the pulmonary artery forcing R side to system
croc respiration
assistance from hepatic piston pump. diaphragmatic muscle pulls liver back to inhale, abdominals push it forward for exhale
croc courtship
males are territorial esp. gharials, use vocalizations inc. subsonic and water movement to attract, tactile signals during mating like jaw rubbing.
croc eggs
lay in mud/debris nests or holes, 25-90 eggs. usually female will guard, sometimes its both parents. ESD (males are warm) vegetation provides eggs with heat. hatchlings stay with mom for like 2 years. parents will dig out nest, and everyone but gharials carries young to the water
phylogenetic bracketing
placing a specimen btwn known relatives to infer things about its life history
pterosauromorpha
in avemetatarsalia. start late triassic, end end cretaceous. early were small and 1st flying verts, get up to 11m long later.
pterosaur and bird convergence
pneumatized bones, big brains, good vision and balance, large muscles, lost/reduced tail and teeth, maybe endothermy, sexually dimorphic displays
pycnofibers
feather-like covering of pterosaurs. i say same thing
pterosaur wings
main part is extended 4th digit and the other 3 are a claw in the middle (used for walking on all 4s)
membranes on pterosaur
main wing - cheiropatagium, wrist-neck - propatagium, btwn legs - cruropatagium
pterosaur diet
in jurassic insectivores, filter feeders, piscivores, become predatory by cretaceous
pterosaur sex/reproduction
sexually dimorphic bone or keratin crests, laid flexible eggs
dinosauria timeline
paraphyletic (needs birds). all oviparous. earliest were 240 mya (triassic), small, bipedal, predatory. did not become big until jurassic, died out KT
dinosauromorpha synapomorphy
offset head of femur
dinosauria synapomorphy
perforated acetabulum
ornithischia
bird hipped dinosaurs (pubis shifts back). includes ceratops, stegosaurs, ankylosaurs
saurischia
lizard hipped dinos (pubis has extension back but still faces forward). includes sauropods and theropods (inc. birds)
how to infer endothermy from fossils
4-chambered heart, large size, no insulation
mesothermy
being somewhat heated due to residual heat from muscles moving due to large size
thermal gigantism
tendency of large animals to generate and retain heat due to size
social behavior inferred from fossils
horns/crests used for defense, combat, displays, communication. also had herds
dinosaur parental care
incubated eggs, communal nests, cared for young, creche
creche
when a parent guards multiple nests
ornithiscia groups
thyreophora, neornithischia
thyreophora
“shield bearer” with keeled osteoderms, group of ornithiscianss inc ankylosaurs (herbivores, Jurassic-Cretaceous), stegosaurs (keratinous beak, gastroliths, thagomizer, plates used for thermoreg etc ??)
neornithischia (groups and synapomorphy
asymmetrical enamel on teeth w/ cutting edge. inc. ornithopoda and marginocephalia
ornithopoda
bird feet. neornithischia. bipedal, inc. iguanodon, hadrosaurs (duck-billed, sexually dimorphic hollow crest that resonates sounds)
marginocephalia
synapomorphy = occipital shelf of bone, inc. pachycephalosaurs (domed heads for bashing), ceratops (beaks and teeth, frills from bone), psittacosaurs
sauropodamorpha + synapomorphies
in saurischia, synapomorphies = ten cervical vert, long necks. early = small, light, some were bipedal (late triassic)
sauropods
jurassic-cretaceous. 90 genera, up to 30m and 40000 kg, long necks, weight mostly on hindlegs, tail carried as counterweight, neural arches had ligament also to distribute bodyweight across spine. convergent pneumatized skeleton. long neck for feeding or sexual selection (tortoise fight)
theropods + synapomorphies
bipedal predators in saurischia. synapomorphies: ziphodont dentition (serrated edges), maxillary fenestra, grasping hands, air sacs, furcula. inc herrerasaurus, dilophosaurus, allosaurus, spinosaurus, coelosaurs (trex), raptors,
tetanura
group in therapoda inc everything after dilophosaurs. four fingers, teeth limited to front of jaw
coelosaurs
group in therapoda t-rex and everything after. bigger brains, narrower feet.
tyrannosauroidea
small, light, long limbs in jurassic, eventually big in cretaceous
ornithomimidae
group in theropoda with feathers (first REAL feathers), small skull, long neck, convergent bill, inc. deinocheirus (they thought his hands were evil…). sister to maniraptors (branches off before them)
maniraptora + traits
everyone after ornithomimidae. long arms, flexible wrists, feathers - extra long on limbs and tail. some had limb reduction, beaks, herbivory
paraves + synapomorphies
inc. raptors, deinonychosaurs (close to raptor) and aviale. synapomorphies: long hands w claws, asymmetrical wing feathers, hindfoot sickle claws, bird pelvis.
cretaceous birds and pterosaurs
birds did small pterosaurs did big
feather origin
unknown! if pycnofibers and ornithiscians homologous to actual feathers, 240 mya
flight theories
trees-down (gliding), ground up (clapping prey capture), assisted incline (could go up very steep slopes), exaptation (flapping motion coopted for flight the normal running movement)
mosaic evolution
previous traits coalesce to new ability
exaptations for powered flight in birds
furcula, big brain, big eyes, feathers, long limbs, asymmetric arm feathers
avialae
group with modern birds, archeopteryx, and enantiornithes had reduced number of caudal verts. starts late jurassic
archeopteryx
avialan late jurassic. reduced tail, long arms, asymmetrical feathers, powered flight.
confuciusornis
1st appearance of pygostyle, 125 mya (early cretaceous). beak with no teeth
enantiornithes
lineage that died out parallel to birds (died during KT) - sister to neornithes, their scapula/coracoid joint is the reverse of modern birds (get big keel)
ornithurines
group in cretaceous that leads to modern birds (birds and closest relatives - ichthyornithes. )
ichthyornithiformes
stem water birds in ornithurines, 95-83 mya (mid cretaceous), shorter tail, deeper keel, center of gravity shifts foward
neornithes + synapomorphies
modern birds, aka aves. get synsacrum, carpometacarpals, edentous beak. 11k spp
flight mechanics
down stroke creates low pressure above wing, minimizes drag on upstroke by feathers turning to let air pass through. lift is generated by low pressure above, high below
flight muscles
downstroke is pectoralis major, upstroke is supracoracoideus
physiology adapted for flight
high metabolism (40 degree temp), efficient metabolism and respiration - cross-current flow at lungs, unidirectional flow with air sacs,
air sac info
9, some anterior and posterior. lungs dont really change in volume. 2 cycles (in/out) to bring 1 unit of air thru all chambers. rocking of sternum assists air flow
bird hearts
1.5-2x size of mammals, 150-350 bpm
crop
pouch at base of bird esophagous, for storing food and in some spp secreting “crop milk” (columbiformes, flamingoes)
proventriculus
1st part of bird stomach, secretes stomach acid
gizzard
2nd part of bird stomach, in some. thick-walled, stores gizzard stones for mechanical digestion
bird gonads
usually unpaired to save weight, enlarge 30x size during breeding szn to save weight rest of year, only paleognaths and ducks have intromittent, the rest use cloacal kiss/ protuberance for sperm conduction only during mating season
bird mating systems
diverse, many have prolonged interaction, sexual dimorphism, mating displays. show monogamy, polyandry, polygyny.
bird nests
can be simple (or none) or complex. made of sticks, mud, spit, stones, trash, and some are cavity nesters
bird parental care
all lay hard eggs. brood eggs and young, feed and defend, could be either parent or both. some have brood patches where feathers are lost and more capillaries develop to warm eggs/young better. most are altricial, paleognaths precocial
bird sex determination
WW/WZ
paleognathae
flat sternum, reduced wings. flightless except tinamous. inc emu, ostrich, rheas
neognathae
galloanserae and neoaves
galloanserae
galliformes and anseriformes, the fowl
neoaves
inc every birds after anseriformes. aequornithes, shorebirds, telluraves, and assorted groups
caprimulgiformes
nightjars. PARAPHYLETIC bc it branches off before apodiformes.
apodiformes
hummingbirds, swifts
mirandornithes
flamingoes, grebes
columbiformes
pigeons, doves, dodo
gruiformes
cranes, coots
aequornithes
monophyletic group inc. procellariformes, sphenisciformes, pelecaniformes, gaviiformes, suliformes, ciconiiformes
charadriiformes
shorebirds. gulls, plovers, puffins
telluraves
passerines, parrots, owls, raptors, piciformes
raptorial bird groups
accipitriformes, strigiformes, falconiformes. hooked beaks, binocular vision
psittaciformes
parrots. herbivores, cavity nesters
passeriformes
more than 60% of spp. passeri = most, tyranni = flycatchers. biparental care, altricial young
birdsong mechanism and why
syrinx vibrates tympaniform membrane. breeding males will sing, for species ID, reproductive status, quality, territory
song learning
learn from parents. can be closed-ended (must learn as a child) or open-ended (can change song as an adult)
synapsid skull changes
lose PO bar, fenestration is connected to orbit, this fenestration keeps growing to accommodate more muscle. lower bar flares out to form zygomatic arch, close parietal eye gradually. dentition gets more heterodont, molars get more cusped and multiple roots
synapsid role over time
dominant in permian and early triassic, get small (become actual mammals also) in jurassic until KT when they are larger and dominant again
pelycosaurs
first synapsid radiation (paraphyletic), diverse. mid carboniferous-midpermian. small were insectivores, some larger herbivores and very large carnivores. dimetridon was a sail-backed carnivore, and there was an independently sailbacked herbivorous spp.
therapsida + synapomorphies
second radiation (also includes some cynodonts in radiation). synapomorphies: larger temporal fenestra, heterodont dentition, enlarged choanae, better neck and limb mobility, soft tissue secondary palate.
second radiation of mammals
includes therapsids (para) which include dicynodonts and theriodonts, and cynodonts (para)
dicynodonts
NOT cynodonts. “therapsids” in second radiation. late permian/early triassic. herbivory, beaks, lower jaw grinding
theriodonts
in second radiation, had coranoid process, flange on lower jaw, increased temporal fenestra, predatory and some were sabertooth. look like a dogy.
cynodontia + synapomorphies
“dog tooth”, part of 2nd radiation. synapomorphies: multicuspid molars, cartilage or bone nasal turbinates, bony secondary palate. had large and small herbivores and carnivores but died out early jurassic
mammalia + skull changes
3rd radiation of synapsids, had split lineages by late triassic. increase PO fenestration, zygomatic arches, lose parietal foramen bc it is not needed for endotherms, int choanae and secondary palate move back, dentary takes over lower jaw (now whole jaw has teeth). quadrate and articular become incus and malleus, articulation is dentary-squamosal.
limb and axial skeleton changes over synapsid evolution
sprawling to under body. girdles lighter, more flexible, more attached to the spine to promote movement, ankle flexibility inc and foot size dec. cynodonts start losing some ribs to inc flexibility. therapsids on reduce tail
stem mammalia
small, insectivorous, enlarged forebrain, nocturnal, good smell. poor fossil record due to size
monotremata characteristics
order of momotremes. “one hole”. electroreception, venom, 4 headed penis (2 used at a time), 2 uteri, leathery eggs, 1-3 eggs incubated in a pseudopouch
theria
subclass containing clades metatheria and eutheria
mammalia synapomorphies
hair, mammary glands, dentary-squamosal articulation, 3 ear ossicles, endothermy, brain enlargement, cheek teeth with divided roots, tooth occlusion, rotary mastication,
sebaceous glands
on hair, secretes waxy substance
eccrine sweat glands
produce the liquid part of sweat
apocrine sweat glands
produce chemical components of sweat
where did breast milk maybe evolve and why
apocrine, maybe antimicrobial becomes nutritive via mutation
lactation relaxes pressure for
paternal care, seasonal breeding, allows altriciality
milk ridges
where nipples appear in eutherians
half-nipple rule
in eutheria average clutch size = 1/2 number of nipples
facial expressions
adapted from muscles needed for suckling.
mammalia physiology/integument
4-chambered heart, costal ventilation and diaphragm (up when relaxed), insulated by fur or blubber, hair starts sensory and becomes insulation, lost scales, keratinous claws/nails, hooves, horns, GSD (weird for monotremes)
theria synapomorphies
nipples, viviparity, separate anus and genitals, skull changes for bounding
diastema
gap btwn incisors and cheek teeth
marsupial vaginas
3 tubes, sides for sperm and middle for baby to come out. ureters pass through the fork.
marsupial birth
after 4-5 weeks babies have basically head and forelimbs, crawl to pouch and spend several months.
marsupium
pouch, sphincter muscles close it. can be ventral, top or bottom opening
embryonic diapause
kangaroos can have a baby in stasis in uterus, one suckling, and one joey out of the pouch at the same time. suckling baby recieves diff milk than joey.
ameridelphia
paraphyletic marsupial group inc. didelphimorphs (opossums, 111 spp, opposable digit, omnivorous). and paucituberculata (shrew opossums, 7 spp in andes, insectivores)
marsupial biogeography
traveled south from N america to australia, diverged along the way
australodelphia
paraphyletic marsupial group with diprotodontia (phalangeroidea, vombatiformes, petauroidea, macropodiformes)
diprotodontia groups and features
australian marsupials, have large lower jaw incisors and syndactyly (2nd and 3rd digit fused w 2 nails). inc phalangeroidea, vombatiformes, petauroidea, macropodiformes
phalangeroidea
arborial marsupial group in diprotodontia. cuscuses and brushtail possums
vombatiformes
marsupial group in diprotodontia with herbivorous koalas and wombats (3 spp)
petauroidea
marsupial group in diprotodontia. sugar gliders and possums (nocturnal)
macropodiformes
marsupial group in diprotodontia. inc. kangaroos, wallabies, potoroos. herbivores, have 4 molars and die when they wear down. lmao?
eutheria synapomorphies
corpus callosum (integrates L and R brain), midline vagina and penis, intrauterine gestation is looong
eutherian uteri
some duplex (2 cervices) = lagomorphs, rodents, elephants; some bipartite (paired but same cervix) = ungulates, whales, carnivores; simplex (fused) = primates, armadillos
choriovitelline placenta
yolk sac/chorion fusion that nourishes therians in early development, this is the only placenta that metatherians have.
chorioallantoic placenta
blood vessels go deeper into uterine wall, second placenta to develop for long-term nutrients. only in eutherians.
external testes theories
body heat too hot? bounding crushes them? sexual selection? none of them are good. marsupials have them in front of penis
cenozoic temperature patterns
hothouse world in paleocene/eocene, then oligocene it drops and icehouse world,,, 1 mya ice ages cycle in and out constantly, sea level shrink from glaciers and we get land bridges!! (pleistocene).
GABI
great american biotic interchange; animals moved N and S, those who moved south did better (for megafauna and temperature reasons) 2.6 mya (holocene)
megafauna
big in pleistocene, 30% died 11000 ya due to overkill or climate change
mammal diversification
p much after KT boundary
most abundant mammals
40% rodents, 20% bats
atlantogenata
southern origin eutherian group, afrotheria and xenarthra
afrotheria
eutherians with 60my of isolation in Africa. inc. afroinsectiphilia and paenungulata
afroinsectiphilia
group in afrotheria, inc. tubulidentata (aardvark), afrosoricida (50 spp, tenrecs and golden moles), macroscelida (20 spp, elephant shrews)
paenungulata
hydracoidea (hyraxes, 5 spp), sirenia (5 spp, manatees), proboscoidea (3spp) all herbivores, hindgut fermenters
foregut fermentation
stomach chambers have fermentation bacteria, often ruminate.
hindgut fermentation
cecum (after small intestine) has fermentation bacteria. this is less efficient so they eat all the time or eat their poop.
xenarthra
group in atlantogenata with anteaters, sloths, armadillos (21 spp) diverged 59 mya. synapomorphies = xenarthrous processes on spine, internal testes, low metabolic rate
boreoeutheria
group of slightly northern eutherians, inc. euarchontoglires and laurasiatheria
euarchontoglires
boreotherian mammal group. glires = herbivorous, widespread, rodentia (incisors, 2277 spp) and lagomorpha (like 80 spp, peg teeth, coprophagy); euarchonta = scadentia (tree shrews in SE asia, 20 spp, big brains), dermoptera (SE asia, sister to primates - colugo), primates.
strepsirrhini
lemurs etc in primates = wet nose
haplorhini
the primates past the tarsiers
platyrrhini
flat nosed new world monkeys. have wide nose, round nostrils, arboreal, prehensile tail, even-sized limbs, small body size
catarrhini
forward noses, old world monkeys and apes. nostrils point down, long hindlimbs, have butts, non-prehensile tails, medium/large size
apes
inc. gibbons and great apes (split 13 mya)
laurasiatheria
group in boreotheria inc. eulipotyphla, chiroptera, ferungulata
eulipotyphla
small invert diet, spiky teeth. inc hedgehogs (43 spp), moles (46 spp), shrews (385 spp)
chiroptera
1240 spp. insectivorous, fruit, small inverts etc; megachiroptera inc fruit bats etc and microchiroptera echolocate (or maybe paraphyletic)
echolocation in bats
ultrasound from larynx, listen to time delay btwn ears to find objects
ferungulata
laurasiatherian group inc. ferae (carnivora and pholidota) and ungulates (artiodactyla and perissodactyla)
ferae
carnivora - 260 spp, carnassials, predation, diversity with hypercarnivores, omnivores, herbivores, piscivores. pholidota = pangolins, 8 spp. tropical, scales are made of hair, no teeth, long claws.
ungulata
perissodactyls = horses (1 toe), rhinos (3), hindgut fermenters, mesaxonic. artiodactyls = 2 toes, foregut fermenters mostly, include cetaceans, paraxonic.
mesaxonic
weight is on 1 toe (perissodactyla)
paraxonic
weight is shared btwn 2 toes (artiodactyla)
cetaceans
from artiodactyls, nares moves up to be blowhole so no nose, poor vision, good hearing. inc. odontocetes (toothed whales = echolocation, homodont teeth like dolphins, beluga, sperm whales), mysticetes (baleen whales, really giant; blue, humpback)
who is a “therapsid”
dicynodonts, theriodonts
who is in monophyletic therapsida
EVERYONE up to modern mammals after the 2nd radiation
who is a “cynodont”
the extinct members of that part of the 2nd radiation
who is in monophyletic cynodontia
everyone after the first cynodonts.
crurotarsal ankles
aka crocodyloid. definitive of pseudosuchia.
mesotarsal ankles
definitive of avemetatarsalia.
deinonychosauria
non-avialan group in paraves
diapsida
extant reptiles
sauropsida
extinct ancestors and extant reptiles
reptilia
includes some but not all sauropsid ancestors.
“divided” heart sections (turtles)
divided ventricle, blood goes lungs, cavum arteriosum(L), L ventricle, body, cavum pulmonale (R), R ventricle, back to lungs
stapes
in ear in mammals, used to be hyomandibula in fish
