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A&P > Test #2 > Flashcards

Test #2 Flashcards

1
Q

DNA structure

A
  • long 🧵 molecule
  • double helix (spiral staircase)
    • every side piece is backbone made of phosphate groups alternating w/deoxyribose (sugar)
    • ”👣” pairs of nitrogenous bases (A&T or G&C)
  • most humans-46 DNA molecules=2 meters in length
  • polymer of nucleotides
  • 100 million+ base pairs long
Nitrogenous Bases:
•cytosine (pyrimidine; single ring)
•thymine (pyrimidine; single ring)
•adenine (purine; double ring)
•guanine (purine; double ring)
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2
Q

What’s the function of DNA?

A
  • to produce 👨‍👩‍👧 cells

* normal day to day stuff

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3
Q

RNA structure

A
  • 70-10,000 nitrogenous bases
  • only 1 nucleotide chain; doesn’t use complementary base pairs
  • ribose (sugar)
Nitrogenous Bases:
•adenine
•cytosine
•guanine
•uracil
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4
Q

What’s the function of RNA?

A

•interpret DNA code & use instructions for protein synthesis

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5
Q

Where does RNA work?

A

•mainly cytoplasm

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6
Q

Which is disposable, RNA or DNA?

A
  • RNA is

* DNA is not

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7
Q

Nucleotides

A

3 parts:
•sugar
•phosphate
•single or double 💍 nitrogenous base

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8
Q

How many nitrogenous bases does DNA have & what are they?

A

•4

  • adenine
  • guanine
  • cytosine
  • thymine
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9
Q

How many nitrogenous bases does RNA have & what are they?

A
  • mainly 4
  • transfer RNA has 50+
  • adenine
  • guanine
  • cytosine
  • uracil
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10
Q

Gene

A

•DNA segment that codes for RNA molecule production

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11
Q

How is genetic code used?

A
  • uses 4 nucleotides (A, T, C, G) to code amino acid sequences
  • expressed in codons
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12
Q

Codon

A

•3 base sequence in mRNA

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13
Q

Base triplet

A

•3 DNA nucleotides that = 1 amino acid

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14
Q

What’s the base pair rule?

A
  • DNA
  • we can predict 2nd strand based on 1st strand that’s given to us
  • bases pair up so it can be predicted
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15
Q

What’s the role of DNA polymerase?

A
  • enzyme
  • moves along DNA strands
  • reads exposed bases
  • acts like matchmaker (pairs up complementary free nucleotides)
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16
Q

What is the flow of genetic information?

A

Study figures…
•4.1
•4.2
•4.8

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17
Q

Peptide

A

•compound made of 2+ linked amino acids

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18
Q

How do you synthesize a peptide of RNA when given a strand of DNA?

A

•pair up the nitrogenous bases

19
Q

Cell Cycle

A

•G1-1st gap phase
growth & normal metabolic roles

•S-synthesis phase
DNA replication

•G2-2nd gap phase
growth & prep for mitosis

•M-mitotic phase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis
20
Q

Prophase

A
  • chromosomes shorten/thicken
  • coil into compact rods
  • nuclear envelope disintegrates & releases chromosomes in cytosol
  • centrioles sprout spindle fibers (long microtubules) that grow & push centrioles until each 💈 has a pair
  • spindle fibers grow towards chromosomes & connect at kinetochore/each side of centromere
  • spindle fibers tug chromosomes back/forth until they line up in middle
21
Q

Metaphase

A
  • chromosomes on cell equator

* shaking a little; waiting for signal to split in 2 at centromere

22
Q

Anaphase

A

•enzyme activated to split 2 👭chromatids

23
Q

Telophase

A
  • chromosomes go to cell 💈
  • chromatin decondenses
  • each 💈 gets new nuclear ✉️ w/new nucleoli in each nucleus
24
Q

Cytokinesis

A

•cytoplasm divides in 2 cells

25
Q

Genes

A

•genetic instructions for protein synthesis

26
Q

Alleles

A
  • different forms of gene in same place in 2 homologous chromosomes
  • dominant or recessive
27
Q

Heredity

A

•genetic characteristics passed from 👨🏼 to 👶🏼

28
Q

What are the 3 developmental/embryonic layers?

What organs/🧻 does each layer give rise to?

A

ectoderm:
•epidermis
•nervous system

mesoderm:
•loosely organized cells
•turns into gelatinous 🧻 (mesenchyme)

endoderm:
•digestive & respiratory tract mucous membranes

29
Q

What are the 4 primary tissue classes?

A
  • epithelial
  • connective
  • nervous
  • muscular
30
Q 
What are the...
•types
•forms 
•locations
•functions
...of epithelial tissue?
A

Simple Epithelia:
•squamous-lung alveoli/kidney capsules/❤️/blood vessels/stomach membranes/intestines/; rapid diffusion/🚕/secretes lubricant

  • cuboidal-liver/thyroid/mammary/salivary/other glands/kidney tubules/bronchioles; absorption/secretion/produce mucous
  • columnar-stomach lining/intestines/gallbladder/uterus/kidney tubules; absorption/secretes mucous & more/moves 🥚 & embryo in uterine tube
  • pseudostratified columnar-respiratory tract(👃🏼 to bronchi)/part of male urethra; secretes & propels mucous

Stratified Epithelia:
•keratinized squamous-epidermis/🤲🏼&🦶🏼; resists abrasion & penetration/delays 💦 loss

  • nonkeratinized squamous-👅/oral mucosa/esophagus/anal canal/vagina; resists abrasion & penetration
  • cuboidal-sweat gland ducts/🥚 producing vesicles/sperm producing ducts; sweat secretion/secrets ovarian hormones/produces sperm
  • columnar-
  • transitional-urinary tract/kidney parts/ureter/bladder/urethra parts; expand for urinary tract/protects tissues from osmotic urine damage
31
Q 
What are the...
•types
•forms 
•locations
•functions
....of connective tissues?
A

Fibrous (fibroconnective):
Loose connective-most space is ground substance
•areolar-under most epithelia/surrounds 💉 vessels, nerves, esophagus, trachea/fascia between 💪🏼/mesenteries/visceral layers pericardium & pleura; binds epithelia deeper/passage for nerves & 💉vessels through tissues/provides immune defense arena/nutrient & 💩 removal for overlying epithelia through 💉 vessels

•reticular-lymph nodes/spleen/thymus/🦴marrow; supportive stroma

Dense connective-most space is fiber
•dense regular-tendons/ligaments; ligaments bind 🦴& resist stress/tendons bind muscle to 🦴& transfer 💪🏼tension to 🦴

•dense irregular-deeper skin/capsules around liver, kidney, spleen/fibrous sheath around cartilage & 🦴; withstands unpredictably applies stress; gives 🧻 durability

Adipose: subcutaneous fat below skin/breast/❤️ surface/mesenteries/surrounding organs like kidneys & eyes; energy storage/insulation/heat production/cushion/fills space/shapes body

Cartilage:
•hyaline-over ends of 🦴 @ joints/supportive 💍 & plates around trachea & bronchi/📦 around larynx/much of fetal 💀/end of rib to breastbone; eases joints/holds airways open/moves vocal cords/precursor of bone in fetal 💀
•elastic-👂🏼/epiglottis (flap in throat); flexible support
•fibro-anterior joint between 2 pelvic girdle halves/intervertebral 🥏/menisci (shock absorbing pads in knee joint)/where tendons insert on 🦴 near hyaline; resists compression/absorbs shock/transitional between dense connective & hyaline (@ some tendon/bone junctions)

Bone: hard connective tissue
•spongy-middle layer of 🦴 like sternum & cranial; calcified but looks 🧽

•compact-💀; physical support/leverage for 💪🏼/protects organs/reservoir of calcium & phosphorus

Blood: fluid connective tissue
•erythrocytes (RBCs)-most abundant; pink 🥏 w/thin/pale centers & no nuclei; transport oxygen & carbon dioxide

  • leukocytes (WBCs)-defense; bigger than RBCs; usually violet nucleus
  • platelets-cell pieces scattered in blood cells; involved in clotting; promote blood vessel growth/maintenance; minimize blood loss
32
Q

Endocrine vs. Exocrine

Combined w/section 6.3 cutaneous glands

A

Endocrine:
•no ducts or contact w/surface

Exocrine:
•maintain contact w/surface through ducts

33
Q

What are the functions of skin?

A
  • resist trauma & infection
  • barrier (keeps water in/out, UV, chemicals)
  • vitamin D synthesis
  • sensation (nerve endings for hot/cold/texture/pressure/vibration/injury)
  • thermoregulation
  • nonverbal communication
34
Q

Epidermis

A

Cells:
•stem-undifferentiated cells divide & give rise to keratinocytes; in stratum basale
•keratinocytes-majority; synthesize keratin; most visible epidermal cells
•melanocytes-make melanin (brown/black pigment); in stratum basale
•tactile-few; touch receptors; in stratum basale
•dendritic-immune cells; start in bone marrow go to epidermis/epithelia; in stratum spinosum & strstum granulosum

Layers: (stratum)
•basale(deepest)-single layer cuboidal-low columnar & keratinocytes in basement membrane; (melanocytes/tactile/stem)
•spinosum-layers of keratinocytes; generally thickest stratum; (keratinocytes/dendritic)
•granulosum-3-5 keratinocyte layers; generally in thick skin
•lucidum-thin zone above granulosum (so only in thick skin); keratinocytes densely packed w/eleidin; no nuclei/organelles
•corneum(top)-30 layers of keratinized cells

35
Q

Dermis

A
  • .2 mm(eyelids)-4 mm(🤲🏼&🦶🏼)
  • mainly collagen w/elastic fibers, reticular fibers, fibroblasts, (other cells in fibrous connective tissue)
  • supplies w/💉 vessels, cutaneous glands, nerve endings
  • holds hair follicles & nail roots
36
Q

Hypodermis

A
  • beneath skin
  • no distinct boundary between dermis & hypodermis
  • more areolar & adipose
  • pads body & binds skin to underlying tissues
  • highly vascular
  • absorbs drugs quickly

Ex: drugs infected here due to quick absorption

37
Q

Skin color

A

Pigments:
•melanin-(made by melanocytes), collects in keratinocytes of basale & spinosum
•eumelanin-brownish black
•pheomelanin-reddish yellow
•different colors = same amount of melanocytes but different quantities of melanin

  • hemoglobin-red pigment (blood vessels visible)
  • carotene-yellow pigment (eating 🥚 yolks/yellow veggies)
  • cyanosis-blueness to skin (oxygen deficiency; changes hemoglobin to blueish)
  • erythema-abnormal redness(exercise, heat, sunburn, anger, embarrassment; dilated blood vessels w/increased blood flow)
  • pallor-pale/ashen (emotional stress, low blood pressure, circulatory shock, cold temp, anemia; little blood flow so white dermal collagen is visible)
  • albinism-white hair/skin (genetic lack of melanin)
  • jaundice-yellow skin & whites of eyes (high levels of bilirubin in blood)
  • hematoma-bruise (clotted blood mass)
38
Q

What are the types of cutaneous glands & their functions?

A
  • merocrine sweat-cool the body; produce water through sweating
  • apocrine sweat-respond to stress/sexual stimulation; excrete milky sweat; secrete sex pheromones
  • sebaceous-produce sebum oil; protects hair & skin from being dry & brittle
  • ceruminous-keeps eardrum pliable, waterproofs war canal; produces cerumen (sebum & dead epidermal cels)
  • mammary-produce milk
39
Q

Genotype

A

•alleles a person has for particular trait

Homozygous alleles-2 identical alleles for trait
Heterozygous alleles-different alleles for that gene

40
Q

Phenotype

A
  • observable trait

* expresses allele

41
Q

What’s the flow of genetic info?

A
  • DNA
  • RNA
  • protein
42
Q

What do all connective tissues have in common?

A
  • their cells take up less space than extracellular matrix

* usually cels aren’t in direct contact (separates by matrix)

42
Q

Skin Cancer

A 
Basal cell carcinoma-
•most common
•least deadly (rarely metastasizes)
•can disfigure
•comes from stratum basale
•invades dermis
•lesion 1st is small/shiny bump, enlarges & forms central depression & beaded edge

Squamous cell carcinoma-
•arises from keratinocytes of stratum spinosum
•lesion-scalp/ears/lower lip/back of hand; raised/red/scaly; later concave ulcer
•lethal if ignored but easily treated if detected

Melanoma-
•most deadly
•rare?
•treated if caught quickly(metastasizes quickly)
•unresponsive to chemo
42
Q

Burns

A 
Caused by...
•fires
•kitchen spills
•hot water
•sunlight
•strong acids/bases
•radiation
•electrical shock
1st degree-
•epidermis
•red/slight edema/pain
•heals in days
•rarely scars
Ex: sunburns
2nd degree-
•epidermis/dermis
•red/tan/white/blistered/pain
•heals 2 weeks-months
•maybe scars
Ex: bad sunburns & scalds

3rd degree- (leading cause of accidental death)
•epidermis/dermis/often muscle/often bone
•often need skin grafts

A&P (11 decks)

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