Chapter 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Anatomy
A
•study of structure/form
2
Q
Physiology
A
•study of function
3
Q
Inspection
A
•looking at appearance to perform physical exam or diagnosing based on surface appearance
4
Q
Palpation
A
•feeling structure w/hands
Ex:
•feeling swollen lymph nodes
•taking pulse
5
Q
Auscultation
A
•listening to sounds made by body
Ex:
•heart
•lungs
6
Q
Percussion
A
- taps on body
- feels for abnormal resistance
- listens to emitted sounds for signs of pockets of fluid/air or scar tissue
7
Q
Dissection
A
•cutting & separating tissues
8
Q
Cadaver
A
•dead human body
9
Q
Comparative anatomy
A
•studying multiple species to examine similarities & differences & analyze evolutionary trends
10
Q
Exploratory surgery
A
•opening body to see the problem & look for solution
11
Q
Medical imaging techniques
A
•methods to view inside of bodies without surgery
12
Q
Radiology
A
•branch of medicine concerned w/imaging
13
Q
Gross anatomy
A
•structure visible to naked eye
through surface observation, radiology, or dissection
14
Q
Histology
A
•microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease
15
Q
Cytology
A
•study of structure & function of individual cells
16
Q
Ultrastructure
A
•fine detail (down to molecular level) revealed by electron microscope
17
Q
Comparative physiology
A
- studying how different species solved problems like water balance, respiration, & reproduction
- basis for developing new drugs & medical procedures
18
Q
Hippocrates
A
- father of medicine
- Greek physician
- Hippocratic Oath
19
Q
Aristotle
A
- one of 1st to write about A&P
* disease could have natural causes (physici or physiologi) or supernatural causes (theologi)
20
Q
Claudius Galen
A
•doctor for Gladiatiors
21
Q
Andreas Vesalius
A
- Italian anatomy professor
* most professors didn’t like/do dissection but he did
22
Q
William Harvey
A
- English physiology professor
* known for studies of blood circulation
23
Q
Who 1st realized that blood must constantly circulate?
A
- William Harvey
* Michael Servetus
24
Q
How do anatomy & physiology relate?
A
- when studying structure we also want to know function
* when studying function we also want to know structure
25
What are some ways to study human anatomy?
* inspection
* palpation
* auscultation
* percussion
* dissection
* cadavers
* comparative anatomy
* exploratory surgery
* medical imaging
* radiology
* histology
* histopathology
* cytology
26
Histopathology
•microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease
27
In what ways did medical science vary?
•from religion to religion
28
What physicians used to be the most esteemed?
•Jewish doctors
29
What great invention was quickly seen as a toy for rich people?
•microscope
30
Who (re)created the microscope? Who improved it?
* Robert Hooke created it
| * Antony van Leeuwenhoek
31
What was Rene Descartes & Francis Bacon’s problem with debates of ancient philosophy?
* no solutions were created
| * nothing new happened
32
```
What method is used for...
•listening for a heart murmur
•studying microscopic structure of liver
•microscopically examining liver tissue for signs of hepatitis
•learning blood vessels of cadaver
•performing breast self-examination
```
* auscultation
* histology
* histopathology
* dissection
* palpation
33
Maimonides
* Jewish doctor
* wrote about Jewish law & theology
* wrote 10 major medical books & many treaties on diseases
34
Avicenna
* combined Galen & Aristotle
| * wrote The Canon of Medicine
35
Michael Servetus
•1 of the 1st western scientists to realize blood constantly circulates
36
Robert Hooke
* designed multiple scientific instruments (including compound microscope)
* microscopes were already kind of a thing but he improved & added to it
37
Antony van Leeuwenhoek
* textile merchant
* invented single-lens microscope
* simpler than Hook’s but more magnification
* invention was seen as toy for rich people
38
Matthias Schleiden & Theodor Schwann
* botanist & zoologist
* said all organism were made of cells
* 1st tenet of cell theory
39
Cell theory
•all bodily functions are interpreted as effects of cellular activity
40
Francis Bacon & Rene Descartes
Bacon-English philosopher
Descartes-French philosopher
•envisioned science as greater, systematic enterprise w/possibilities for human health & welfare
41
How did Galen’s followers disregard his advice?
* he told them to trust their observations more than books
| * they took his book as fact
42
How did Vesalius improve medical education?
* he got down & involved with teaching by dissecting cadavers himself
* published accurate illustrations for teaching anatomy
43
Describe aspects of experimental design that help ensure objective & reliable results
* sample size
* controls
* psychosomatic effects
* experimenter bias
* statistical testing
44
Scientific Method
* habits of disciplined creativity
* careful observation
* logical thinking
* honest analysis of observations & conclusions
45
Inductive Method
* 1st by Francis Bacon
| * process of making many observations until confident to draw generalization & predictions
46
Hypothetico-Deductive Method
* investigator asks question & forms hypothesis
* researcher makes deduction (typically in “if-then” form)
* observations should support hypothesis or require scientist to modify or abandon it, formulate a better hypothesis, & test it
47
Hypothesis
•educated speculation/possible answer
good hypothesis must be...
1) consistent with what’s known
2) capable of being tested & possibly gasified by evidence
48
Falsifiability
* if we claim something is scientifically true then we must be able to specify what evidence would prove it false
* if no evidence could prove it false then it’s not scientific
49
Sample size
•number of subjects used in a study
a good sample size is big enough to account for chance events & individual variations
50
Controls
•similar subjects to compare results between treated & untreated individuals to determine if treatment is effective
Control Group:
•not being tested
Treatment Group:
•being tested
51
Psychosomatic Effects
•effects of subject’s state of mind on their physiology
Ex:
•fear leads to faster heart rate
52
Placebo
•substance w/no real physiological effect on body
Ex:
•giving tester a sugar pill so they don’t think they are/aren’t the people being tested
53
Experimented Bias
•experimenters want certain results so biased (even subconsciously) could affect interpretation of data
54
Double-blind Method
•subject & researchers don’t know which patients are being treated & which aren’t so they don’t have biases
55
Statistical Testing
•testing used to prove that effects were caused by treatment & not at random
56
Peer Review
•critical evaluation by other experts in that field
57
Fact
•information that can be independently verified by any trained person
58
Law of Nature
•generalization about predictable ways matter & energy behave
59
Theory
•explanatory statement(s) derived from facts/laws/confirmed hypotheses
60
Evolution
•change in genetic composition of a population of organisms
61
Nature Selection
•individuals within species that have hereditary advantages over others
62
Selection Pressures
•nature forces that promote reproductive success of some more than others
```
Ex:
•climate
•predators
•disease
•competition
•food selection
```
63
Adaptations
•features of A&P & behavior that evolve in response to selection pressures & enable organism to cope w/environmental challenges
64
Model
•animal species/strain selected for research on particular problem
65
Prehensile
•able to grasp by encircling something w/thumb & fingers
Ex:
•opposable thumbs made monkey hands PREHENSILE making it possible to grab branches
66
Stereoscopic
* vision that allowed for depth perception
| * improves hand/eye coordination
67
Bipedalism
•standing/walking on 2 legs
68
Evolutionary Medicine
•analyzes how human disease/dysfunction can be traced to differences between our current environment & prehistoric environment
69
Hierarchy of Complexity
* Organism
* Organ Systems
* Organs
* Tissues
* Cells
* Organelles
* Molecules
* Atoms
70
Organism
•single/compete individual
71
Organ System
•group of organs w/unique collective function
72
How many organ systems are there & what are they?
•11
1) integumentary
2) skeletal
3) muscular
4) nervous
5) endocrine
6) circulatory
7) lymphatic
8) respiratory
9) urinary
10) bladder
11) urethra
73
Organ
•structure composed of 2+ tissue types that work together to carry out particular function
74
Tissue
•mass of similar cells & cell products that form a discrete region of an organ & performs a specific function
75
Cells
* smallest unit of an organism that carry out all basic functions of life
* nothing simpler than a cell is considered alive
76
Cytology
•study of cells & organelles
77
Organelles
•microscopic structures in a cell that carry out individual functions
78
Molecules
* particle made of 2+ atoms
| * smallest particle w/unique chemical identities
79
Reductionism
•theory that large/complex system like human body can be understood by studying its simpler components
80
What’s the simplest unit that’s still considered living?
•cell
81
What are the largest molecules & what are they called?
* proteins, fats, & DNA
| * macromolecules
82
Holism
•complementary theory that there are “emergent properties” of the whole organism that can’t be predicted from properties of separate parts
83
Situs Inversus
•organs of thoracic & abdominal cavities are reversed between left & right
84
Situs Solitus
* normal arrangement of organs such as...
* spleen
* pancreas
* sigmoid colon
* most of the heart
* appendix
* gallbladder
* most of the liver
85
Situs Perversus
•1organ in an abnormal place
86
Dextrocardia
•right/left reversal of heart
87
How are tissues relevant to the definition of an organ?
•combined tissues compose organs
88
Why should medical students observe multiple cadavers & not just 1?
•people are different so they wouldn’t get a complete view by looking at one person
89
What are the characteristics of life (characteristics that prove something is alive)?
* organization
* cellular composition
* metabolism
* responsiveness
* homeostasis
* development
* reproduction
* evolution
90
Organization
•exhibited by living things more than non-living things
91
Cellular Composition
•living matter compartmentalized into 1+ cells
92
Metabolism
* living things take in molecules from environment & chemically change them into molecules that form their own structures/control their physiology/provide them with energy
* consists of internal chemical reactions in living organism
93
Responsiveness & Movement
•ability of organisms to sense & react to stimuli
94
Stimuli
•changes in environment
95
Homeostasis
•ability to maintain internal stability
* body’s ability to...
* detect change
* activate mechanisms that oppose change
* maintaining internal stability
96
Differentiation
•transformation of cells w/no specialized function into cells that are committed to a task
97
Reproduction
* living organisms produce copies of themselves
| * passing genes to new/younger containers (offspring)
98
Claude Bernard
* French physiologist
* observes that internal conditions remain mostly constant even when external conditions change
Ex:
•if weather is hot/cold, body stays about 98
99
Walter Cannon
* American physiologist
| * coined term homeostasis for tendency to maintain internal stability
100
Pathophysiology
•study of unstable conditions resulting when homeostatic controls go awry
101
Dynamic equilibrium
* balanced change
* certain set point (average value) for a given variable & conditions fluctuate slightly around it
Ex:
•set point for body temperature=98
•conditions change a little & it may go up to 99
102
Set point
•average value
103
Negative feedback
* process where body senses change & activates mechanisms to negate/reverse it
* maintains stability
* key mechanism to maintain health
104
Feedback loops
•alters original change that triggered the loop
Ex: (negative feedback loop)
•thermostat at 68
•room gets to 66
•temperature-sensitive switch notices the change & turns on the furnace
•room gets back to 68 & temp switch turns off furnace
105
Vasodilation
•widening of blood vessels
What happens...
•body overheats & needs to release heat
•blood vessels dilate/widen making them closer to the surface of the body
•blood then flows closer to the surface of the body & heat is released to surround air
•if this doesn’t restore normal body temp then you sweat
106
Vasoconstriction
•blood vessels narrow
What happens...
•body is too cold
•vessels constrict/narrow to keep blood deeper & away from surface
•this retains heat & works to raise body temp
•if this doesn’t restore body temp then shivering happens (muscle tremors)
107
What are 3 common pieces of a feedback loop? & how do they work together?
* receptor
* integrating (control) center
* effector
Ex: (feedback loop)
•receptor monitors blood pressure
•through the integrating center the cardiac center of brain processes current blood pressure & compares it to what it should be then decides how to respond
•effector (the heart in this case) carries out corrective action
108
Receptor
•structure that senses change in the body
Ex:
•monitors blood pressure through stretch receptors
109
Integrating (control) center
•mechanism that processes information that receptor finds/notices/monitors then related this info to other available info & decides how to respond
110
Effector
•cell/organ that carries out corrective action
111
Positive feedback
* self-amplifying cycle in which a physiological change leads to greater change in same direction (rather than producing corrective effects like negative feedback)
* normal way to produce rapid change
* can be harmful/life threatening because self-amplifying nature quickly changes internal state to far from homeostatic set point
Ex: (woman in labor)
•baby head pushes against cervix & stimulates nerve endings
•nerve signals travel to brain & stimulate pituitary gland to secrete oxytocin (hormone)
•oxytocin travels through blood & stimulates uterus to contract
•contracts push baby into cervix more causing positive feedback loop to continue
•this is why labor contractions become more & more intense
112
Gradient
•difference in chemical concentration/electrical charge/physical pressure/temperature/other variables between 1 point & another
113
Flows “down the gradient” or “up the gradient”
* when matter/energy moves from the point where variable has higher value to point w/lower value-flows down
* opposite direction-flows up
114
Pressure Gradient
Ex: (garden hose)
•water flows down hose from high-pressure point to low-pressure point (the opening)
Ex: (every heartbeat)
•high-pressure near heart to low-pressure farther away
Ex: (inhaling)
•air flows down a pressure gradient from surrounding atmosphere to pulmonary air passages w/lower pressure
Ex: (kidneys)
•drives process to help kidneys filter water & waste products from blood
115
Concentration gradients
* chemicals flow down these
| * water flows through cell membranes & epithelia by osmosis(from high concentration side to low concentration)
116
Electrical gradients
Ex:
•lots of Na+ outside of cell but not many in the cell
•outer surface of cell membrane is relatively positively charged compared to inner surface
•if membranes channels opened then Na+ rushes into the cell therefore flowing down the electrical gradient
117
Thermal gradient
•heat is released if it flows down the thermal gradient
Ex:
•blood flowing through small arteries close to skin surface
•air temp around body is cool
•heat flows from body to air (down the thermal gradient)
118
Eponyms
•terms coined from names of people
Ex:
•Fallopian tube
•duct of Santorini
119
Analyzing medical terms
1) at least 1 root/stem that holds core meaning
Ex: cardi from cardiology-means heart
2) combining vowels inserted to join roots & make them easier to say
(“o” is common but other vowels are used)
3) prefixes can be added to change the words core meaning
Ex:
•gastric mean pertaining to the stomach/belly of a muscle
•epi+gastric = above stomach
4) suffixes can be added to change the words core meaning
Ex:
•microscope vs. microscopic
120
Acronyms
Ex:
| •PET scan (positron emission tomography)
