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A&P > Chapter 1 > Flashcards

Chapter 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Anatomy

A

•study of structure/form

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2
Q

Physiology

A

•study of function

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3
Q

Inspection

A

•looking at appearance to perform physical exam or diagnosing based on surface appearance

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4
Q

Palpation

A

•feeling structure w/hands

Ex:
•feeling swollen lymph nodes
•taking pulse

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5
Q

Auscultation

A

•listening to sounds made by body

Ex:
•heart
•lungs

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6
Q

Percussion

A
  • taps on body
  • feels for abnormal resistance
  • listens to emitted sounds for signs of pockets of fluid/air or scar tissue
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7
Q

Dissection

A

•cutting & separating tissues

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8
Q

Cadaver

A

•dead human body

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9
Q

Comparative anatomy

A

•studying multiple species to examine similarities & differences & analyze evolutionary trends

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10
Q

Exploratory surgery

A

•opening body to see the problem & look for solution

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11
Q

Medical imaging techniques

A

•methods to view inside of bodies without surgery

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12
Q

Radiology

A

•branch of medicine concerned w/imaging

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13
Q

Gross anatomy

A

•structure visible to naked eye

through surface observation, radiology, or dissection

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14
Q

Histology

A

•microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease

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15
Q

Cytology

A

•study of structure & function of individual cells

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16
Q

Ultrastructure

A

•fine detail (down to molecular level) revealed by electron microscope

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17
Q

Comparative physiology

A
  • studying how different species solved problems like water balance, respiration, & reproduction
  • basis for developing new drugs & medical procedures
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18
Q

Hippocrates

A
  • father of medicine
  • Greek physician
  • Hippocratic Oath
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19
Q

Aristotle

A
  • one of 1st to write about A&P

* disease could have natural causes (physici or physiologi) or supernatural causes (theologi)

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20
Q

Claudius Galen

A

•doctor for Gladiatiors

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21
Q

Andreas Vesalius

A
  • Italian anatomy professor

* most professors didn’t like/do dissection but he did

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22
Q

William Harvey

A
  • English physiology professor

* known for studies of blood circulation

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23
Q

Who 1st realized that blood must constantly circulate?

A
  • William Harvey

* Michael Servetus

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24
Q

How do anatomy & physiology relate?

A
  • when studying structure we also want to know function

* when studying function we also want to know structure

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25
Q

What are some ways to study human anatomy?

A
  • inspection
  • palpation
  • auscultation
  • percussion
  • dissection
  • cadavers
  • comparative anatomy
  • exploratory surgery
  • medical imaging
  • radiology
  • histology
  • histopathology
  • cytology
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26
Q

Histopathology

A

•microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease

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27
Q

In what ways did medical science vary?

A

•from religion to religion

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28
Q

What physicians used to be the most esteemed?

A

•Jewish doctors

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29
Q

What great invention was quickly seen as a toy for rich people?

A

•microscope

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30
Q

Who (re)created the microscope? Who improved it?

A
  • Robert Hooke created it

* Antony van Leeuwenhoek

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31
Q

What was Rene Descartes & Francis Bacon’s problem with debates of ancient philosophy?

A
  • no solutions were created

* nothing new happened

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32
Q 
What method is used for...
•listening for a heart murmur
•studying microscopic structure of liver
•microscopically examining liver tissue for signs of hepatitis 
•learning blood vessels of cadaver
•performing breast self-examination
A
  • auscultation
  • histology
  • histopathology
  • dissection
  • palpation
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33
Q

Maimonides

A
  • Jewish doctor
  • wrote about Jewish law & theology
  • wrote 10 major medical books & many treaties on diseases
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34
Q

Avicenna

A
  • combined Galen & Aristotle

* wrote The Canon of Medicine

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35
Q

Michael Servetus

A

•1 of the 1st western scientists to realize blood constantly circulates

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36
Q

Robert Hooke

A
  • designed multiple scientific instruments (including compound microscope)
  • microscopes were already kind of a thing but he improved & added to it
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37
Q

Antony van Leeuwenhoek

A
  • textile merchant
  • invented single-lens microscope
  • simpler than Hook’s but more magnification
  • invention was seen as toy for rich people
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38
Q

Matthias Schleiden & Theodor Schwann

A
  • botanist & zoologist
  • said all organism were made of cells
  • 1st tenet of cell theory
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39
Q

Cell theory

A

•all bodily functions are interpreted as effects of cellular activity

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40
Q

Francis Bacon & Rene Descartes

A

Bacon-English philosopher
Descartes-French philosopher

•envisioned science as greater, systematic enterprise w/possibilities for human health & welfare

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41
Q

How did Galen’s followers disregard his advice?

A
  • he told them to trust their observations more than books

* they took his book as fact

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42
Q

How did Vesalius improve medical education?

A
  • he got down & involved with teaching by dissecting cadavers himself
  • published accurate illustrations for teaching anatomy
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43
Q

Describe aspects of experimental design that help ensure objective & reliable results

A
  • sample size
  • controls
  • psychosomatic effects
  • experimenter bias
  • statistical testing
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44
Q

Scientific Method

A
  • habits of disciplined creativity
  • careful observation
  • logical thinking
  • honest analysis of observations & conclusions
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45
Q

Inductive Method

A
  • 1st by Francis Bacon

* process of making many observations until confident to draw generalization & predictions

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46
Q

Hypothetico-Deductive Method

A
  • investigator asks question & forms hypothesis
  • researcher makes deduction (typically in “if-then” form)
  • observations should support hypothesis or require scientist to modify or abandon it, formulate a better hypothesis, & test it
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47
Q

Hypothesis

A

•educated speculation/possible answer

good hypothesis must be…

1) consistent with what’s known
2) capable of being tested & possibly gasified by evidence

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48
Q

Falsifiability

A
  • if we claim something is scientifically true then we must be able to specify what evidence would prove it false
  • if no evidence could prove it false then it’s not scientific
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49
Q

Sample size

A

•number of subjects used in a study

a good sample size is big enough to account for chance events & individual variations

50
Q

Controls

A

•similar subjects to compare results between treated & untreated individuals to determine if treatment is effective

Control Group:
•not being tested

Treatment Group:
•being tested

51
Q

Psychosomatic Effects

A

•effects of subject’s state of mind on their physiology

Ex:
•fear leads to faster heart rate

52
Q

Placebo

A

•substance w/no real physiological effect on body

Ex:
•giving tester a sugar pill so they don’t think they are/aren’t the people being tested

53
Q

Experimented Bias

A

•experimenters want certain results so biased (even subconsciously) could affect interpretation of data

54
Q

Double-blind Method

A

•subject & researchers don’t know which patients are being treated & which aren’t so they don’t have biases

55
Q

Statistical Testing

A

•testing used to prove that effects were caused by treatment & not at random

56
Q

Peer Review

A

•critical evaluation by other experts in that field

57
Q

Fact

A

•information that can be independently verified by any trained person

58
Q

Law of Nature

A

•generalization about predictable ways matter & energy behave

59
Q

Theory

A

•explanatory statement(s) derived from facts/laws/confirmed hypotheses

60
Q

Evolution

A

•change in genetic composition of a population of organisms

61
Q

Nature Selection

A

•individuals within species that have hereditary advantages over others

62
Q

Selection Pressures

A

•nature forces that promote reproductive success of some more than others

Ex:
•climate
•predators
•disease
•competition
•food selection
63
Q

Adaptations

A

•features of A&P & behavior that evolve in response to selection pressures & enable organism to cope w/environmental challenges

64
Q

Model

A

•animal species/strain selected for research on particular problem

65
Q

Prehensile

A

•able to grasp by encircling something w/thumb & fingers

Ex:
•opposable thumbs made monkey hands PREHENSILE making it possible to grab branches

66
Q

Stereoscopic

A
  • vision that allowed for depth perception

* improves hand/eye coordination

67
Q

Bipedalism

A

•standing/walking on 2 legs

68
Q

Evolutionary Medicine

A

•analyzes how human disease/dysfunction can be traced to differences between our current environment & prehistoric environment

69
Q

Hierarchy of Complexity

A
  • Organism
  • Organ Systems
  • Organs
  • Tissues
  • Cells
  • Organelles
  • Molecules
  • Atoms
70
Q

Organism

A

•single/compete individual

71
Q

Organ System

A

•group of organs w/unique collective function

72
Q

How many organ systems are there & what are they?

A

•11

1) integumentary
2) skeletal
3) muscular
4) nervous
5) endocrine
6) circulatory
7) lymphatic
8) respiratory
9) urinary
10) bladder
11) urethra

73
Q

Organ

A

•structure composed of 2+ tissue types that work together to carry out particular function

74
Q

Tissue

A

•mass of similar cells & cell products that form a discrete region of an organ & performs a specific function

75
Q

Cells

A
  • smallest unit of an organism that carry out all basic functions of life
  • nothing simpler than a cell is considered alive
76
Q

Cytology

A

•study of cells & organelles

77
Q

Organelles

A

•microscopic structures in a cell that carry out individual functions

78
Q

Molecules

A
  • particle made of 2+ atoms

* smallest particle w/unique chemical identities

79
Q

Reductionism

A

•theory that large/complex system like human body can be understood by studying its simpler components

80
Q

What’s the simplest unit that’s still considered living?

A

•cell

81
Q

What are the largest molecules & what are they called?

A
  • proteins, fats, & DNA

* macromolecules

82
Q

Holism

A

•complementary theory that there are “emergent properties” of the whole organism that can’t be predicted from properties of separate parts

83
Q

Situs Inversus

A

•organs of thoracic & abdominal cavities are reversed between left & right

84
Q

Situs Solitus

A
  • normal arrangement of organs such as…
    • spleen
    • pancreas
    • sigmoid colon
    • most of the heart
    • appendix
    • gallbladder
    • most of the liver
85
Q

Situs Perversus

A

•1organ in an abnormal place

86
Q

Dextrocardia

A

•right/left reversal of heart

87
Q

How are tissues relevant to the definition of an organ?

A

•combined tissues compose organs

88
Q

Why should medical students observe multiple cadavers & not just 1?

A

•people are different so they wouldn’t get a complete view by looking at one person

89
Q

What are the characteristics of life (characteristics that prove something is alive)?

A
  • organization
  • cellular composition
  • metabolism
  • responsiveness
  • homeostasis
  • development
  • reproduction
  • evolution
90
Q

Organization

A

•exhibited by living things more than non-living things

91
Q

Cellular Composition

A

•living matter compartmentalized into 1+ cells

92
Q

Metabolism

A
  • living things take in molecules from environment & chemically change them into molecules that form their own structures/control their physiology/provide them with energy
  • consists of internal chemical reactions in living organism
93
Q

Responsiveness & Movement

A

•ability of organisms to sense & react to stimuli

94
Q

Stimuli

A

•changes in environment

95
Q

Homeostasis

A

•ability to maintain internal stability

  • body’s ability to…
    • detect change
    • activate mechanisms that oppose change
    • maintaining internal stability
96
Q

Differentiation

A

•transformation of cells w/no specialized function into cells that are committed to a task

97
Q

Reproduction

A
  • living organisms produce copies of themselves

* passing genes to new/younger containers (offspring)

98
Q

Claude Bernard

A
  • French physiologist
  • observes that internal conditions remain mostly constant even when external conditions change

Ex:
•if weather is hot/cold, body stays about 98

99
Q

Walter Cannon

A
  • American physiologist

* coined term homeostasis for tendency to maintain internal stability

100
Q

Pathophysiology

A

•study of unstable conditions resulting when homeostatic controls go awry

101
Q

Dynamic equilibrium

A
  • balanced change
  • certain set point (average value) for a given variable & conditions fluctuate slightly around it

Ex:
•set point for body temperature=98
•conditions change a little & it may go up to 99

102
Q

Set point

A

•average value

103
Q

Negative feedback

A
  • process where body senses change & activates mechanisms to negate/reverse it
  • maintains stability
  • key mechanism to maintain health
104
Q

Feedback loops

A

•alters original change that triggered the loop

Ex: (negative feedback loop)
•thermostat at 68
•room gets to 66
•temperature-sensitive switch notices the change & turns on the furnace
•room gets back to 68 & temp switch turns off furnace

105
Q

Vasodilation

A

•widening of blood vessels

What happens…
•body overheats & needs to release heat
•blood vessels dilate/widen making them closer to the surface of the body
•blood then flows closer to the surface of the body & heat is released to surround air

•if this doesn’t restore normal body temp then you sweat

106
Q

Vasoconstriction

A

•blood vessels narrow

What happens…
•body is too cold
•vessels constrict/narrow to keep blood deeper & away from surface
•this retains heat & works to raise body temp

•if this doesn’t restore body temp then shivering happens (muscle tremors)

107
Q

What are 3 common pieces of a feedback loop? & how do they work together?

A
  • receptor
  • integrating (control) center
  • effector

Ex: (feedback loop)
•receptor monitors blood pressure
•through the integrating center the cardiac center of brain processes current blood pressure & compares it to what it should be then decides how to respond
•effector (the heart in this case) carries out corrective action

108
Q

Receptor

A

•structure that senses change in the body

Ex:
•monitors blood pressure through stretch receptors

109
Q

Integrating (control) center

A

•mechanism that processes information that receptor finds/notices/monitors then related this info to other available info & decides how to respond

110
Q

Effector

A

•cell/organ that carries out corrective action

111
Q

Positive feedback

A
  • self-amplifying cycle in which a physiological change leads to greater change in same direction (rather than producing corrective effects like negative feedback)
  • normal way to produce rapid change
  • can be harmful/life threatening because self-amplifying nature quickly changes internal state to far from homeostatic set point

Ex: (woman in labor)
•baby head pushes against cervix & stimulates nerve endings
•nerve signals travel to brain & stimulate pituitary gland to secrete oxytocin (hormone)
•oxytocin travels through blood & stimulates uterus to contract
•contracts push baby into cervix more causing positive feedback loop to continue

•this is why labor contractions become more & more intense

112
Q

Gradient

A

•difference in chemical concentration/electrical charge/physical pressure/temperature/other variables between 1 point & another

113
Q

Flows “down the gradient” or “up the gradient”

A
  • when matter/energy moves from the point where variable has higher value to point w/lower value-flows down
  • opposite direction-flows up
114
Q

Pressure Gradient

A

Ex: (garden hose)
•water flows down hose from high-pressure point to low-pressure point (the opening)

Ex: (every heartbeat)
•high-pressure near heart to low-pressure farther away

Ex: (inhaling)
•air flows down a pressure gradient from surrounding atmosphere to pulmonary air passages w/lower pressure

Ex: (kidneys)
•drives process to help kidneys filter water & waste products from blood

115
Q

Concentration gradients

A
  • chemicals flow down these

* water flows through cell membranes & epithelia by osmosis(from high concentration side to low concentration)

116
Q

Electrical gradients

A

Ex:
•lots of Na+ outside of cell but not many in the cell
•outer surface of cell membrane is relatively positively charged compared to inner surface
•if membranes channels opened then Na+ rushes into the cell therefore flowing down the electrical gradient

117
Q

Thermal gradient

A

•heat is released if it flows down the thermal gradient

Ex:
•blood flowing through small arteries close to skin surface
•air temp around body is cool
•heat flows from body to air (down the thermal gradient)

118
Q

Eponyms

A

•terms coined from names of people

Ex:
•Fallopian tube
•duct of Santorini

119
Q

Analyzing medical terms

A

1) at least 1 root/stem that holds core meaning
Ex: cardi from cardiology-means heart

2) combining vowels inserted to join roots & make them easier to say
(“o” is common but other vowels are used)

3) prefixes can be added to change the words core meaning
Ex:
•gastric mean pertaining to the stomach/belly of a muscle
•epi+gastric = above stomach

4) suffixes can be added to change the words core meaning
Ex:
•microscope vs. microscopic

120
Q

Acronyms

A

Ex:

•PET scan (positron emission tomography)

A&P (11 decks)

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