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A&P > Chapters 25&26 > Flashcards

Chapters 25&26 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 6 Digestive Tract Organs?

A
  • mouth
  • pharynx
  • esophagus
  • stomach
  • small intestine
  • large intestine
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2
Q

What are the 2 subdivisions of the digestive system?

A
  • digestive tract organs

- accessory organs

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3
Q

What are the 6 accessory organs of the digestive system?

A
  • teeth
  • tongue
  • salivary glands
  • liver
  • gallbladder
  • pancreas
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4
Q

What are the 4 tissue layers of the digestive tract?

A
  • mucosa (inner lining)
  • submucosa
  • muscularis externa
  • serosa
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5
Q

Mucosa

A
  • inner lining
  • epithelium: mostly simple columnar, some stratified squamous
  • lamina propria: loose connective tissue
  • muscularis mucosae: folds mucosa, increases surface area, improves digestion/absorption efficiency
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6
Q

Submucosa

A
  • thicker layer of loose connective tissue
  • contains blood/lymphatic vessels
  • submucosa plexus: part of ENS, controls muscularis mucosae movement & glandular secretion of mucosa
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7
Q

Muscularis externa

A
  • 2 muscular layers near outer surface
  • responsible for motility (propels food & residue through digestive tract)
  • inner circular layer: forms sphincters (regulates food passage through digestive tract)
  • outer longitudinal layers: controls motility (propels food through digestive tract)
  • myenteric plexus: between layers of muscularis externa, part of ENS, controls peristalsis & other contractions
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8
Q

Serosa

A
  • outside layer
  • thin layer of areolar tissue w/simple squamous mesothelium on top
  • begins in lower 3-4cm of esophagus & ends just before rectum
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9
Q

What are the 8 anatomical structures of the mouth?

A
  • oral fissure
  • fauces
  • cheeks & lips
  • labial frenulum
  • vestibule
  • palate
  • tongue
  • teeth
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10
Q

Functions of the mouth:

A
  • respiration
  • ingestion
  • chemical digestion
  • deglutition
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11
Q

Oral Fissure

A

opening between lips

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12
Q

Fauces

A

opening to throat

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13
Q

Cheeks & Lips

A
  • enclose mouth
  • retain food
  • manipulate food for chewing
  • speech
  • sucking
  • blowing
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14
Q

Labial Frenulum

A

attaches gums to lips

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15
Q

Vestibule

A

space between cheeks/lips & teeth

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16
Q

Palate

A

separates oral cavity from nasal cavity

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17
Q

Tongue

A
  • manipulates food

- has taste buds

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18
Q

Teeth

A

masticate food

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19
Q

Anatomical structures involved in deglutition

A
  • tongue
  • teeth
  • pharynx
  • upper esophageal sphincter
  • soft palate
  • epiglottis
  • esophagus
  • lower esophageal sphincter
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20
Q

Stages of deglutition

A
  • buccal: voluntary; food compressed into bolus
  • pharyngoesophageal: involuntary; tongue root pushes bolus to pharynx, upper esophageal sphincter constricts pushing bolus down
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21
Q

Extrinsic salivary gland functions

A
  • secrete 1-1.5L saliva/day
  • moisten mouth
  • begin starch & fat digestion
  • cleanse teeth
  • inhibit bacterial growth
  • dissolve molecules
  • bins food into bolus
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22
Q

What are some unique features of the stomach?

A
  • vertical in tall people & horizontal in short people
  • liquids enter 1-2 seconds after leaving mouth
  • solids enter 4-8 seconds after leaving mouth
  • empty = .5L
  • can stretch to 4L
  • greater & lesser curvatures
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23
Q

4 areas of stomach

A
  • cardial part (cardia): 3cm from cardinal orifice; near esophagus
  • fundic region: dome superior to esophageal attachment
  • body (corpus): greatest part distal to cardial orifice
  • pyloric part: slightly narrower pouch at inferior end
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24
Q

What cells are found in cardiac glands?

A
  • mucous
  • some enteroendocrine
  • stem cells
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25
Q

What cells are found in gastric glands?

A
  • some mucous
  • parietal
  • Chief
  • enteroendocrine
  • stem cells
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26
Q

What cells are found in pyloric glands?

A
  • mucous
  • some parietal
  • enteroendocrine
  • stem cells
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27
Q

Mucous cell functions

A

secrete mucus to protect mucosa from stomachs acidic environment

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28
Q

Parietal cell functions

A
  • secrete HCl: activate pepsin & lingual lipase, reduce dietary iron to usable form, destroy ingested pathogens
  • secrete intrinsic factor: B12 absorption
  • secrete ghrelin: produce hunger
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29
Q

Chief cell functions

A
  • secrete pepsinogen: converted to pepsin to digest protein

- secrete gastric lipase: digests fat

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30
Q

Enteroendocrine cell functions

A

-secrete gut-brain peptides & hormones
•histamine: stimulates HCl secretion
•gastric: stimulates gastric glands (to secrete HCl & enzymes); stimulates intestinal motility; relaxes ileocecal valve
•secretin: response to stomach chyme acidity; stimulates liver & pancreas ducts to secrete sodium bicarbonate
•cholecystokinin (CCK): secreted by duodenum & jejunum mucosa response to fats in small intestine; stimulates pancreatic acini tips secrete enzymes; stimulates gallbladder

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31
Q

Gastric Regulation phases

A
  • Cephalic phase: before food is ingested; vagus nerve stimulates gastric secretion
  • Gastric phase: when food enters stomach; food stretches stomach, activates myenteric & vagovagal reflexes which stimulates gastric secretion
  • Intestinal phase: when chyme leaves stomach & enters intestines; intestinal gastric briefly stimulates stomach then secretion, CCK, & enterogastric reflex inhibit gastric secretion & motility
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32
Q

What are 2 signals that increase gastric secretion from G cells?

A
  • elevated pH

- partially digested proteins

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33
Q

Liver anatomy & functions

A
  • right lobe: posterior view; bigger than left
  • left lobe: posterior view; smaller than right
  • falciform ligament: mesentery sheet separating right/left lobe; suspends liver from diaphragm
  • caudate lobe: posterior side of right lobe & wraps around inferior vena cava
  • quadrate lobe: posterior side of right lobe & wraps around gallbladder; inferior to caudate lobe
  • round ligament: fibrous remnant of umbilical vein; carries blood from umbilical cord to fetus
  • porta hepatis: port of entry for hepatic portal vein & proper hepatic artery; point of exit for bile passages
  • blood supply: 30% hepatic artery & 70% hepatic portal vein
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34
Q

Gallbladder anatomy & functions

A
  • pear shaped sac under liver
  • stores/concentrated bile
  • 10cm long
  • internally lined by highly folded mucosa
  • only secreted its own mucus
  • has neck, head, body
35
Q

Pancreas anatomy & functions

A
  • flattened, spongy
  • 12-15cm long, 2.5cm thick
  • head, body, & tail
  • pancreatic duct: runs lengthwise in middle of pancreas & joins bile duct at hepatopancreatic ampulla
  • hepatopancratic sphincter: controls bile & pancreatic juice release to duodenum
  • hepatopancreatic ampulla: formed by bile duct & pancreatic duct when they meet
36
Q

Why does the pancreas secrete enzymes in the form of zymogens?

A

to prevent enzymes from digesting proteins in cells where they’re made

37
Q

What’s unique about the pancreas?

A

it’s an endocrine & exocrine gland

 - endocrine = pancreatic islets secrete insulin & glucagon; mostly in tail
 - exocrine = 99% of pancreas; secreted pancreatic juice (1,200-1,500mL/day); mostly in head
38
Q

What are the regions of the small intestine?

A
  • duodenum
  • jejunum
  • ileum
39
Q

Duodenum anatomical features

A
  • 1st 25cm is small intestine
  • begins at pyloric valve at end of stomach
  • arches around pancreas head
  • ends at duodenojejunal flexure
  • receives chyme & pancreatic juice
  • mainly neutralizes stomach acid
  • bile emulsified fat
  • takes over chemical digestion
40
Q

Jejunum anatomical features

A
  • 1st 40% of small intestine beyond duodenum
  • rich blood supply = redder
  • most digestion & nutrient absorption happens here
41
Q

Ileum anatomical features

A
  • last 60% beyond duodenum
  • ends at ileocecal junction & valve (junction between ileum & large intestines)
  • contains peyer’s patches (AKA aggregated lymphoid nodules): part of immune system, monitors intestinal bacteria & prevents growth of pathogenic bacteria
  • nutrient reabsorption
42
Q

What’s the purpose of the circular folds in the small intestine?

A

-slow chyme progress
-make it flow on spiral path to increase…
•contact w/mucosa
•mixing
•nutrient absorption

43
Q

What’s the purpose of the villi in the small intestine?

A
  • enhances chyme mixing in intestinal linen

- milks lymph down lacteal to larger lymphatics in submucosa

44
Q

What’s the purpose of the microvilli in the small intestine?

A
  • increase surface area
  • contain brush border enzymes to carry out some final stages of chemical digestion
  • not secreted into lumen, chyme contacts brush border
45
Q

What are the 2 types of intestinal motility?

A
  • segmentation

- peristalsis

46
Q

Segmentation

A
  • most common intestinal contraction
  • kneads/churns contents
  • slow chyme progression toward colon
47
Q

What’s the purpose of 2 types of intestinal motility?

A
  • mix chyme w/intestinal juice, bile, & pancreatic juice so these fluids neutralize acid & digest nutrients
  • churn chyme & make it contact mucosa for digestion & nutrient absorption
  • move residue toward large intestine
48
Q

Which enzymes are involved in carb digestion?

A
  • amylase
  • maltase
  • sucrase
  • lactase
49
Q

Which enzymes are involved in protein digestion?

A

-proteases (peptidases): carboxypeptidase, aminopeptidase, dipeptidase

50
Q

Which enzymes are involved in fat (lipids) digestion?

A

-lipases: lingual lipase, gastric lipase, pancreatic lipase

51
Q

What’s the purpose of bile salts in fat digestion & absorption?

A

it breaks up fat

52
Q

What’s the purpose of micelles in fat digestion & absorption?

A

transport lipids to enterocyte surface where lipids are diffused out of cell

53
Q

What’s the purpose of chylomicrons in fat digestion & absorption?

A
  • packaged in secretory vesicles & transported to nasal surface to release contents in core of villus
  • transport lipids absorbed from intestine to adipose, cardiac, & skeletal muscle tissue
54
Q

Where are monosaccharides & amino acids reabsorbed from the small intestine?

A

blood capillary

55
Q

Where are fatty acids & lipids reabsorbed from the small intestine?

A

lacteal

56
Q

What are the main functions of the large intestine?

A
  • water & electrolyte reabsorption

- feces storage & formation

57
Q

Large intestine segments in order

A
  • ascending colon
  • transverse colon
  • descending colon
  • sigmoid colon
58
Q

Anatomy of large intestine

A
  • appendix
  • cecum
  • ascending colon
  • right colic flexure (corner)
  • transverse colon
  • left colic flexure (corner)
  • descending colon
  • sigmoid colon
  • anal canal
  • external anal sphincter
59
Q

What are the beneficial functions of bacterial flora in the large intestine?

A
  • extract nutrients we can’t get otherwise

- help synthesize vitamins B & K

60
Q

What’s the relationship between nutrition & metabolism?

A
  • nutrition provides raw materials

- metabolism uses raw materials

61
Q

What’s the difference between anabolic & catabolic chemical reactions?

A
  • anabolic: using food/nutrients to build cellular material

- catabolic: breaks down food to make energy

62
Q

What’s the only true way to satisfy hunger?

A

eat food w/nutrients

63
Q

Short term appetite regulators

A
  • ghrelin
  • peptide YY (PYY)
  • cholecystokinin (CKK)
64
Q

Long term appetite regulators

A
  • leptin
  • insulin
  • neuropeptide Y (NPY)
  • melanocortin
65
Q

What are the categories of lipid transporter lipoproteins?

A
  • lipids transported through bloodstream by 4 lipoprotein categories (higher proportion
  • maintain total plasma cholesterol concentration < 200mg/dL
  • chylomicrons: deliver dietary lipids to cells
  • VLDLs: deliver body made triglycerides to cells
  • LDLs: deliver body made cholesterol
  • HDLs: removes cholesterol from body
66
Q

What are the pathways of lipid transporter lipoproteins?

A
  • chylomicrons: lymph absorbs from small intestine ➡️ lymph drains to bloodstream ➡️ lipoprotein lipase removes lipids from chylomicrons ➡️ lipids stored in adipocytes pr used & liver disposes of chylomicron remnants
  • VLDL/LDL: liver produces VLDLs ➡️ triglycerides removed & stored in adipocytes & VLDLs become LDLs containing mainly cholesterol ➡️ cells absorb LDLs by receptor-mediated endocytosis
  • HDL: it’s a loop; liver produces empty HDL shells ➡️ HDL shells pick up cholesterol & phospholipids from tissues ➡️ filled HDLs back to liver ➡️ liver excreted excess cholesterol & bile acids ➡️ repeat
67
Q

Aerobic Respiration chemical equation

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H20

Glucose + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide + Warer

68
Q

Oxidation

A

losing/donating electrons

69
Q

Reduction

A

receiving/gaining electrons

70
Q

What’s the told of oxygen in aerobic metabolism?

A
  • w/O2 pyruvic acid enters mitochondria & aerobic respiration oxidizes
  • oxidizes carbs, O2 atoms attach to carbon in excreted CO2 molecule
  • O2 converts nutrients to CO2 & ATP
71
Q

What are the 3 major pathways of glucose metabolism?

A
  • glycolysis
  • anaerobic fermentation
  • aerobic respiration
72
Q

Glycolysis

A

-in cytoplasm
-steps:
•phosphorylation: G6P produces
•priming: G6P rearranged = F6P; phosphorylated again = fructose 1,6 diphosphate
•cleavage: fructose 1,6 diphosphate layers to 2 C3 molecules called PGAL
•oxidation: PGAL oxidized (H+ pair removed); NAD+ picks up electrons & 1 proton
•dephosphorylation: ADP ➡️ ATP; C3 compound becomes pyruvic acid
-oxidizes NADH carries electrons
-end products:
•2 pyruvic acid
•2 NADH + 2 H+
•2 ATP (4 created but 2 used)
-no O2 = pyruvate ➡️ lactate & no more ATP produced
-O2 = pyruvates transported to mitochondrial matrix

73
Q

Anaerobic Fermentation

A

-in cytoplasm
-end products:
•2 lactic acid
•2 NAD+
•2 ATP (from glycolysis so 4 made but 2 used)
-liver converts lactic acid back to G6P; can form glycogen for storage or remove phosphate group & release free glucose to blood
-drawbacks:
•wasteful- most energy still in lactic acid
•lactic acid is toxic & contributed to muscle fatigue
-makes as much ATP as aerobic respiration

74
Q

What are the matrix reaction end products of Aerobic Respiration?

A
  • 2 pyruvate + 6 H2O = 6 CO2
  • 2 ADP + 2 Pi = 2 ATP
  • 8 NAD+ + 8 H2 = 8 NADH + 8 H+
  • 2 FAD + 2 H2 = 2 FADH2
75
Q

How does pyruvic acid prepare to enter CAC in aerobic respiration?

A
  • CO2 removed (C3 compound ➡️ C2 compound)
  • NAD+ removes H+ from C2 compound (C2 compound ➡️ acetyl group)
  • becomes acetyl-coenzyme A (acetyl group binds coA)

-other steps happen in mitochondria

76
Q

Which steps of aerobic respiration generate exhaled CO2?

A
  • CO2 releases from pyruvate formed in glycolysis

- CAC: Citric Acid Cycle

77
Q

What’s the Chemiosmetic mechanism of ATP synthesis?

A
  • ATP synthase harnesses energy from H+ current to drive ATP synthesis
  • explains functioning of electron transport chains
  • transferring electrons down electron transport system through oxidation-reduction reactions release energy
78
Q

Lipolysis

A

makes triglycerides from free fatty acids & glycerol

79
Q

Lipogenesis

A

breakdown of triglycerides into glycerol & fatty acids

80
Q

What’s the danger associated w/ketone bodies?

A

possible pH imbalance

81
Q

Mumps

A
  • caused by: infection of parotid gland from mumps virus
  • symptoms: painful swelling of salivary glands
  • treatment: control symptoms w/pain meds but allow infection to run course
82
Q

Mucosa Ulcers

A

-symptoms:
•abdominal pain
•bloating
•nausea/vomiting
•appetite/weight loss
•untreated can perforate digestive tract wall = hemorrhage
-caused by:
•chronic inflammation from bacterial infection (heliobacter pylon)
•overuse of NSAIDs (Non Steroid Anti-Inflammatory Drugs; ibuprofen & other over the counter pain relievers)
•overuse of aspirin
-treatment:
•antibiotics (for bacterial infection)
•bismuth suspension (Pepto-Bismol)

83
Q

Acid Reflux (heartburn)

A

-reflux is stomach acid back into esophagus
-caused by: relaxation of lower esophageal sphincter (LES) by…
•too much food in stomach
•too much pressure in stomach (like pregnancy)
•chemical relaxants in foods
•stress/lack of sleep
•smoking
-treatment:
•treat underlying causes (more sleep, less food, stop smoking, etc)
•antacids (Tums)
•drugs blocking histamine receptors

84
Q

What’s the relationship of cholesterol to HDL & LDL levels?

A
  • HDL high = decreased cholesterol
  • HDL low = increased cholesterol
  • LDL high = increased cholesterol
  • LDL low = decreased cholesterol

A&P (11 decks)

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