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Chapter 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Cytology

A

•scientific study of cells

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2
Q

Cellulae

A
  • term coined by Robert Hooke observing empty cell walls of cork
  • means little cells
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3
Q

Cell theory

A
  • cells come from other cells
  • every living thing’s made of cells
  • simplest structure & functional unit of life
  • no smaller subdivisions that are living
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4
Q

How many shapes of cells are there? What are they?

A

•9

  • squamous
  • cuboidal
  • columnar
  • polygonal
  • stellate
  • spheroidal to ovoid
  • discoid
  • fusiform
  • fibrous
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5
Q

Squamous

A
  • thin
  • flat
  • scaly
  • often w/bulge at nucleus
  • similar to fried egg
  • line esophagus
  • form surface layer of skin (epidermis)
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6
Q

Cuboidal

A
  • squarish frontal sections

* liver cells

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7
Q

Columnar

A
  • greater height than width

* inner lining of stomach & intestines

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8
Q

Polygonal

A

•irregular angular shape w/4+ sides

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9
Q

Stellate

A
  • many pointed processes sticking out of body of cell; starlike shape
  • nerve cells
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10
Q

Spheroidal to Ovoid

A

•round to oval

  • egg cells
  • white blood cells
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11
Q

Discoid

A
  • disc shaped

* red blood cells

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12
Q

Fusiform

A
  • spindle
  • elongated
  • thick middle & tapered ends

•smooth muscle cells

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13
Q

Fibrous

A
  • long
  • slender
  • threadlike
  • skeletal muscle cells
  • axons (nerve fibers)
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14
Q

Micrometer

A
  • measurement for designating cell size
  • formerly called micron
  • 1 millionth/meter
  • 1 thousandth/millimeter

•smallest objects visible to naked eye = about 100 micrometers

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15
Q

Cytoplasm

A

•fluid between nucleus & surface membrane

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16
Q

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

A
  • mid-20th century invention
  • used electron beam instead of light
  • enables view of cell’s ultrastructure
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17
Q

What’s the most important thing about a good microscope?

A

•resolution

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18
Q

Resolution

A

•ability to reveal detail

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19
Q

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

A
  • produces 3D images at high magnification & resolution

* only views surface features

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20
Q

Plasma (cell) membrane

A
  • made of proteins & lipids
  • surrounds cell
  • composition & function vary from 1 region of cell to another
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21
Q

Cytosol aka Intracellular Fluid (ICF)

A
  • clear gel found in cell

* cytoskeleton/organelles/inclusions all embedded in this gel

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22
Q

Extracellular Fluid (ECF) aka Tissue (Interstitial) Fluid

A

•all body fluids not in cells

Ex:
•blood
•plasma
•lymph
•cerebrospinal
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23
Q

What are the major components of a cell?

A
  • plasma membrane
  • cytoplasm
    • cytoskeleton
    • organelles (including nucleus)
    • inclusions
    • cytosol
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24
Q

What’s the size of most human cells?

A

•10-15 micrometers in width

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25
What are the longest human cells?
* nerve cells (sometimes longer than a meter) * muscle cells (up to 30cm) •both too slender for naked eye
26
How has the cell theory developed?
* people thought... * cell’s weren’t alive * cell’s were formed randomly from nonliving body fluid * by 19th century... * cells only from cells * every living organism’s made of cells
27
Why can’t cell’s grow to an unlimited size?
* they’ll burst | * they can’t support themselves
28
What’s the difference between cytoplasm & cytosol?
* cytoplasm: between nucleus & surface membrane | * cytosol: not held by any organelles in cell
29
Describe the structure of the plasma membrane
* about 7.5 nm thick * defines boundaries of cells * interacts with other cells * controls diffusion of materials in/out of cell
30
Integral proteins
•penetrate phospholipid bilayer (into or through)
31
What are the 2 broad classes of membrane proteins?
* integral | * peripheral
32
What is it called when an integral protein passes completely through the phospholipid bilayer?
•transmembrane protein
33
Peripheral proteins
* don’t protrude into phospholipid layer * adhere to 1 face of membrane * typically anchored to transmembrane protein & cytoskeleton
34
Receptors
* chemical signals used by cell to communicate bind to surface proteins (receptors) rather than enter target cell * usually specific for 1 messenger (like enzymes specific for substrate)
35
Second-messenger systems
* messenger binds to surface receptor & may trigger change within cell that produces 2nd messenger in cytoplasm * process involves transmembrane proteins (receptors) & peripheral proteins
36
Enzymes
* in plasma membrane * finish digestion of starch & protein in small intestine * produce 2nd messengers * break down hormones & other signaling molecules who finished their job to stop them from stimulating a cell
37
Channel proteins
* passages allowing water & hydrophilic solutes to move through membrane * can be gunnel through individual membrane or tunnel surrounded by complex of multiple proteins
38
Leak channels
* channel protein that’s always open | * materials allowed to pass through continually
39
Gates (gated channels)
* channel protein that opens & closes * sometimes solutes are allowed through & sometimes they’re not * respond to stimuli
40
What are 3 types of gates (gated channels)?
* ligand-gated channels * voltage-gated channels * mechanically gates channels
41
Ligand-gates channels
•respond to chemical messengers
42
Voltage-gated channels
•respond to changes in electrical potential (voltage) across plasma membrane
43
Mechanically gated channels
•respond to physical stress on cell (stretch & pressure)
44
Carriers
* transmembrane proteins * bind to glucose, electrolytes, other diluted * transfer solutes to other side of membrane * some kinds called pumps
45
Pumps
* another name for certain carriers | * consume ATP in process of transferring solutes to other side of membrane
46
Cell-identity markers
* glycoproteins add to glycocalyx (acting like ID tag) | * allows our bodies to tell which cell belongs to it & which are foreign invaders
47
Cell-adhesion molecules (CAMs)
•binds cells together
48
G protein
•named for ATP like chemical, guanosine triphosphate (GTP)
49
Adenylate cyclase
* membrane protein that receives signals from G protein | * removes 2 phosphate groups from ATP & converts it to cyclic AMP (cAMP; the 2nd messenger)
50
Kinases
•cytoplasmic enzymes activated by cyclic AMP
51
Glycocalyx
* external to plasma membrane * fuzzy coat on all animal cells * made of carbohydrate moieties of membrane glycolipids & glycoproteins * chemically unique to each person except identical twins * ID tag allowing body to tell its own healthy cells from transplants/invading organisms/diseased cells
52
Microvilli
* extensions of plasma membrane * primary purpose: to increase cells surface area * most developed in cells specialized to absorb (epithelial cells of intestines & kidneys) * 15-40 absorbing surface area adddd
53
Brush border
•microvilli they are dense and appear as a fringe
54
Axoneme
* axo=axis; neme=thread * structural basis for ciliary movement * thin protein cylinders called microtubules * 2 central microtubules surrounded by ring of 9 pairs Ex: •kinda like a Ferris wheel
55
Basal body
•anchors cilium
56
Dynein arms
* dyn=power/energy; in=protein | * motor protein uses ATP to crawl up adjacent lair of microtubules
57
Flagellum
•tail of sperm is only functional example in humans
58
Pseudopods
* cytoplasm-filled extensions of a cell * shapes vary (fine/filamentous processes to blunt fingerlike ones) * change continually
59
Selectively permeable
•allows some things through but not others
60
Simple diffusion
•net movement of particles from high to low concentration
61
What are some factors that affect the rate of diffusion?
•temperature-warmer means faster diffusion Ex: tea dissolving in hot tea faster than iced tea * molecular weight-heavy molecules move slower (bigger objects are harder to move) & smaller molecules go through membrane pores easier * steepness of concentration gradient-diffusion’s faster when there’s a greater concentration difference between 2 points * membrane surface area-greater surface area means more membrane room for particles to diffuse through * membrane permeability-ability for particles to pass through
62
Osmosis
* net flow of water from 1 side of selectively permeable membrane to another * imbalances in osmosis can cause diarrhea/constipation/hypertension/edema
63
Aquaporins
•channel proteins specialized for water
64
Hydrostatic pressure
ANSWER
65
Osmotic power
ANSWER
66
Reverse osmosis
•mechanical pressure applied to 1 side of system can override osmotic pressure & drive water against concentration gradient
67
Osmolarity
•osmotic concentration
68
Milliosmoles per liter (mOsm/L)
•measurement unit to express quantity of nonpermeating particles/liter of solution
69
Tonicity
•ability of solution to affect fluid volume & pressure in cell
70
Hypotonic solution
* lower concentration of nonpermeating solutes than ICF | * cells absorb water/swell/may burst (lyse)
71
Hypertonic solution
* higher concentration. Of nonpermeating solutes than ICF | * cel loses water/shrivels (crenates)
72
Isotonic solution
* concentration of nonpermeating cells & ICF are equal | * no change in cell volume/shape
73
Carrier-mediated transport
* proteins in plasma membrane that carry solutes from 1 side of membrane to another * 3 factors 1. specificity 2. saturation 3. transport maximum
74
Specificity
•specific receptor (transport protein) binds to specific ligand (solute)
75
Saturation
•rate of transport increases proportionately to solute concentration (only until it reaches transport maximum)
76
What are the 2 types of carrier-mediated transport?
* facilitated diffusion | * active transport
77
Transport maximum
•transport rate when every carrier is occupied
78
Uniport
•only carries 1 type of solute at a time
79
Cotransport
* process of moving 2(+) solutes at once, in same direction | * performed by symport
80
Symport
•carrier protein that performs cotransport (movement of 2+ solutes in same direction at once)
81
Countertransport
* process moving 2+ solutes in opposite directions | * performed by antiport
82
Antiport
•carrier protein w/ability to move 2+ solutes simultaneously in opposite directions
83
What’s an example of an antiport? Hint: it’s found in nearly every cell What does it do?
* sodium-potassium pump | * removes sodium from cell & brings in potassium
84
Facilitated diffusion
* carrier-mediated transport of solute through membrane down concentration gradient * doesn’t use ATP * solute links w/binding site on carrier, carrier changes conformation, & releases solute on other side
85
Primary active transport
•carrier moves substance up concentration gradient using ATP energy (it takes energy to push a ball up a ramp, it also takes energy to move substances up a concentration gradient)
86
Secondary active transport
* requires energy input but indirectly depends on ATP * dependence on primary active transport pump Ex: •kidneys depend on sodium-potassium pump which use ATP
87
Sodium-potassium pump
* active primary transport * enzyme that hydrolyzes ATP * binds 3 sodium to cytoplasmic side of membrane at once then releases them to ECF (extracellular fluid) * binds 2 potassium at once from ECF & releases in cell * process keeps concentration of potassium higher & sodium lower within cell compared to ECF
88
About how many of daily calories go towards the purpose of sodium-potassium pumps?
•about half
89
What are at least 4 functions of the sodium potassium pump?
* secondary active transport: maintains steep sodium concentration gradient (like water behind dam, gradient provides potential energy) * regulation of cell volume: some anions confined to cell (called fixed anions; proteins & phosphates) & attract/retain cations leading to osmotic swelling (& potentially lysis); cell swelling increases sodium-potassium pumps to prevent lysis * maintenance of membrane potential: pump keeps inside more negative & outside more positive; required for nerve & muscle function * heat production: thyroid hormone stimulates cells to produce sodium-potassium pumps; as ATP is used heat is released
90
Vesicular transport
* move large particles, fluid droplets, or multiple molecules simultaneously * whatever’s being moved is contained in vesicles * processes include endocytosis & exocytosis
91
Vesicles
* bubbles that transport large particles, fluid droplets, or multiple molecules across membrane * used in vesicular transport
92
Endocytosis
•matter brought into cell through vesicular transport
93
Exocytosis
•matter releases from cell through vesicular transport
94
What are the 3 forms of endocytosis?
* phagocytosis * pinocytosis * receptor-mediated endocytosis
95
Phagocytosis
* cell eating * process of surrounding bacteria/dust/cellular debris particles to kill it * keeps tissues free of debris/infectious microorganisms Ex: •neutrophils (class of white blood cell) protect body from infection •they crawl through connective tissues using pseudopods •finding bacterium, neutrophils surround it w/pseudopods & traps in phagosome •lysosome merges w/phagosome (converted to phagolysosome) & destroys bacteria
96
Phagosome
* vesicles in cytoplasm surrounded by unit membrane * traps bacteria * connects with lysosome to destroy bacteria
97
Pinocytosis
* cell drinking * taking in droplets of ECF w/molecules of use to cell * occurs in all human cells * membranes cave in, pinch off into cytoplasm as pinocytotic vesicle
98
Pinocytotic vesicles
* contain ECF droplets | * pits separated from surface membrane
99
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
* selective endocytosis | * allows cells take in specific molecules that bind to extracellular receptors w/minimum useless matter
100
Clathrin-Coated vesicles
Clathrin-peripheral membrane •vesicle w/peripheral membrane
101
Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)
•protein-coated droplets of cholesterol & other lipids in blood

A&P (11 decks)

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