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A&P > Chapter 3 > Flashcards

Chapter 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Cytology

A

•scientific study of cells

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2
Q

Cellulae

A
  • term coined by Robert Hooke observing empty cell walls of cork
  • means little cells
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3
Q

Cell theory

A
  • cells come from other cells
  • every living thing’s made of cells
  • simplest structure & functional unit of life
  • no smaller subdivisions that are living
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4
Q

How many shapes of cells are there? What are they?

A

•9

  • squamous
  • cuboidal
  • columnar
  • polygonal
  • stellate
  • spheroidal to ovoid
  • discoid
  • fusiform
  • fibrous
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5
Q

Squamous

A
  • thin
  • flat
  • scaly
  • often w/bulge at nucleus
  • similar to fried egg
  • line esophagus
  • form surface layer of skin (epidermis)
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6
Q

Cuboidal

A
  • squarish frontal sections

* liver cells

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7
Q

Columnar

A
  • greater height than width

* inner lining of stomach & intestines

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8
Q

Polygonal

A

•irregular angular shape w/4+ sides

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9
Q

Stellate

A
  • many pointed processes sticking out of body of cell; starlike shape
  • nerve cells
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10
Q

Spheroidal to Ovoid

A

•round to oval

  • egg cells
  • white blood cells
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11
Q

Discoid

A
  • disc shaped

* red blood cells

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12
Q

Fusiform

A
  • spindle
  • elongated
  • thick middle & tapered ends

•smooth muscle cells

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13
Q

Fibrous

A
  • long
  • slender
  • threadlike
  • skeletal muscle cells
  • axons (nerve fibers)
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14
Q

Micrometer

A
  • measurement for designating cell size
  • formerly called micron
  • 1 millionth/meter
  • 1 thousandth/millimeter

•smallest objects visible to naked eye = about 100 micrometers

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15
Q

Cytoplasm

A

•fluid between nucleus & surface membrane

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16
Q

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

A
  • mid-20th century invention
  • used electron beam instead of light
  • enables view of cell’s ultrastructure
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17
Q

What’s the most important thing about a good microscope?

A

•resolution

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18
Q

Resolution

A

•ability to reveal detail

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19
Q

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

A
  • produces 3D images at high magnification & resolution

* only views surface features

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20
Q

Plasma (cell) membrane

A
  • made of proteins & lipids
  • surrounds cell
  • composition & function vary from 1 region of cell to another
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21
Q

Cytosol aka Intracellular Fluid (ICF)

A
  • clear gel found in cell

* cytoskeleton/organelles/inclusions all embedded in this gel

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22
Q

Extracellular Fluid (ECF) aka Tissue (Interstitial) Fluid

A

•all body fluids not in cells

Ex:
•blood
•plasma
•lymph
•cerebrospinal
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23
Q

What are the major components of a cell?

A
  • plasma membrane
  • cytoplasm
    • cytoskeleton
    • organelles (including nucleus)
    • inclusions
    • cytosol
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24
Q

What’s the size of most human cells?

A

•10-15 micrometers in width

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25
Q

What are the longest human cells?

A
  • nerve cells (sometimes longer than a meter)
  • muscle cells (up to 30cm)

•both too slender for naked eye

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26
Q

How has the cell theory developed?

A
  • people thought…
    • cell’s weren’t alive
    • cell’s were formed randomly from nonliving body fluid
  • by 19th century…
    • cells only from cells
    • every living organism’s made of cells
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27
Q

Why can’t cell’s grow to an unlimited size?

A
  • they’ll burst

* they can’t support themselves

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28
Q

What’s the difference between cytoplasm & cytosol?

A
  • cytoplasm: between nucleus & surface membrane

* cytosol: not held by any organelles in cell

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29
Q

Describe the structure of the plasma membrane

A
  • about 7.5 nm thick
  • defines boundaries of cells
  • interacts with other cells
  • controls diffusion of materials in/out of cell
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30
Q

Integral proteins

A

•penetrate phospholipid bilayer (into or through)

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31
Q

What are the 2 broad classes of membrane proteins?

A
  • integral

* peripheral

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32
Q

What is it called when an integral protein passes completely through the phospholipid bilayer?

A

•transmembrane protein

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33
Q

Peripheral proteins

A
  • don’t protrude into phospholipid layer
  • adhere to 1 face of membrane
  • typically anchored to transmembrane protein & cytoskeleton
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34
Q

Receptors

A
  • chemical signals used by cell to communicate bind to surface proteins (receptors) rather than enter target cell
  • usually specific for 1 messenger (like enzymes specific for substrate)
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35
Q

Second-messenger systems

A
  • messenger binds to surface receptor & may trigger change within cell that produces 2nd messenger in cytoplasm
  • process involves transmembrane proteins (receptors) & peripheral proteins
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36
Q

Enzymes

A
  • in plasma membrane
    • finish digestion of starch & protein in small intestine
    • produce 2nd messengers
    • break down hormones & other signaling molecules who finished their job to stop them from stimulating a cell
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37
Q

Channel proteins

A
  • passages allowing water & hydrophilic solutes to move through membrane
  • can be gunnel through individual membrane or tunnel surrounded by complex of multiple proteins
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38
Q

Leak channels

A
  • channel protein that’s always open

* materials allowed to pass through continually

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39
Q

Gates (gated channels)

A
  • channel protein that opens & closes
  • sometimes solutes are allowed through & sometimes they’re not
  • respond to stimuli
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40
Q

What are 3 types of gates (gated channels)?

A
  • ligand-gated channels
  • voltage-gated channels
  • mechanically gates channels
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41
Q

Ligand-gates channels

A

•respond to chemical messengers

42
Q

Voltage-gated channels

A

•respond to changes in electrical potential (voltage) across plasma membrane

43
Q

Mechanically gated channels

A

•respond to physical stress on cell (stretch & pressure)

44
Q

Carriers

A
  • transmembrane proteins
  • bind to glucose, electrolytes, other diluted
  • transfer solutes to other side of membrane
  • some kinds called pumps
45
Q

Pumps

A
  • another name for certain carriers

* consume ATP in process of transferring solutes to other side of membrane

46
Q

Cell-identity markers

A
  • glycoproteins add to glycocalyx (acting like ID tag)

* allows our bodies to tell which cell belongs to it & which are foreign invaders

47
Q

Cell-adhesion molecules (CAMs)

A

•binds cells together

48
Q

G protein

A

•named for ATP like chemical, guanosine triphosphate (GTP)

49
Q

Adenylate cyclase

A
  • membrane protein that receives signals from G protein

* removes 2 phosphate groups from ATP & converts it to cyclic AMP (cAMP; the 2nd messenger)

50
Q

Kinases

A

•cytoplasmic enzymes activated by cyclic AMP

51
Q

Glycocalyx

A
  • external to plasma membrane
  • fuzzy coat on all animal cells
  • made of carbohydrate moieties of membrane glycolipids & glycoproteins
  • chemically unique to each person except identical twins
  • ID tag allowing body to tell its own healthy cells from transplants/invading organisms/diseased cells
52
Q

Microvilli

A
  • extensions of plasma membrane
  • primary purpose: to increase cells surface area
  • most developed in cells specialized to absorb (epithelial cells of intestines & kidneys)
  • 15-40 absorbing surface area adddd
53
Q

Brush border

A

•microvilli they are dense and appear as a fringe

54
Q

Axoneme

A
  • axo=axis; neme=thread
  • structural basis for ciliary movement
  • thin protein cylinders called microtubules
  • 2 central microtubules surrounded by ring of 9 pairs

Ex:
•kinda like a Ferris wheel

55
Q

Basal body

A

•anchors cilium

56
Q

Dynein arms

A
  • dyn=power/energy; in=protein

* motor protein uses ATP to crawl up adjacent lair of microtubules

57
Q

Flagellum

A

•tail of sperm is only functional example in humans

58
Q

Pseudopods

A
  • cytoplasm-filled extensions of a cell
  • shapes vary (fine/filamentous processes to blunt fingerlike ones)
  • change continually
59
Q

Selectively permeable

A

•allows some things through but not others

60
Q

Simple diffusion

A

•net movement of particles from high to low concentration

61
Q

What are some factors that affect the rate of diffusion?

A

•temperature-warmer means faster diffusion
Ex: tea dissolving in hot tea faster than iced tea

  • molecular weight-heavy molecules move slower (bigger objects are harder to move) & smaller molecules go through membrane pores easier
  • steepness of concentration gradient-diffusion’s faster when there’s a greater concentration difference between 2 points
  • membrane surface area-greater surface area means more membrane room for particles to diffuse through
  • membrane permeability-ability for particles to pass through
62
Q

Osmosis

A
  • net flow of water from 1 side of selectively permeable membrane to another
  • imbalances in osmosis can cause diarrhea/constipation/hypertension/edema
63
Q

Aquaporins

A

•channel proteins specialized for water

64
Q

Hydrostatic pressure

A

ANSWER

65
Q

Osmotic power

A

ANSWER

66
Q

Reverse osmosis

A

•mechanical pressure applied to 1 side of system can override osmotic pressure & drive water against concentration gradient

67
Q

Osmolarity

A

•osmotic concentration

68
Q

Milliosmoles per liter (mOsm/L)

A

•measurement unit to express quantity of nonpermeating particles/liter of solution

69
Q

Tonicity

A

•ability of solution to affect fluid volume & pressure in cell

70
Q

Hypotonic solution

A
  • lower concentration of nonpermeating solutes than ICF

* cells absorb water/swell/may burst (lyse)

71
Q

Hypertonic solution

A
  • higher concentration. Of nonpermeating solutes than ICF

* cel loses water/shrivels (crenates)

72
Q

Isotonic solution

A
  • concentration of nonpermeating cells & ICF are equal

* no change in cell volume/shape

73
Q

Carrier-mediated transport

A
  • proteins in plasma membrane that carry solutes from 1 side of membrane to another
  • 3 factors
    1. specificity
    2. saturation
    3. transport maximum
74
Q

Specificity

A

•specific receptor (transport protein) binds to specific ligand (solute)

75
Q

Saturation

A

•rate of transport increases proportionately to solute concentration (only until it reaches transport maximum)

76
Q

What are the 2 types of carrier-mediated transport?

A
  • facilitated diffusion

* active transport

77
Q

Transport maximum

A

•transport rate when every carrier is occupied

78
Q

Uniport

A

•only carries 1 type of solute at a time

79
Q

Cotransport

A
  • process of moving 2(+) solutes at once, in same direction

* performed by symport

80
Q

Symport

A

•carrier protein that performs cotransport (movement of 2+ solutes in same direction at once)

81
Q

Countertransport

A
  • process moving 2+ solutes in opposite directions

* performed by antiport

82
Q

Antiport

A

•carrier protein w/ability to move 2+ solutes simultaneously in opposite directions

83
Q

What’s an example of an antiport?

Hint: it’s found in nearly every cell

What does it do?

A
  • sodium-potassium pump

* removes sodium from cell & brings in potassium

84
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A
  • carrier-mediated transport of solute through membrane down concentration gradient
  • doesn’t use ATP
  • solute links w/binding site on carrier, carrier changes conformation, & releases solute on other side
85
Q

Primary active transport

A

•carrier moves substance up concentration gradient using ATP energy

(it takes energy to push a ball up a ramp, it also takes energy to move substances up a concentration gradient)

86
Q

Secondary active transport

A
  • requires energy input but indirectly depends on ATP
  • dependence on primary active transport pump

Ex:
•kidneys depend on sodium-potassium pump which use ATP

87
Q

Sodium-potassium pump

A
  • active primary transport
  • enzyme that hydrolyzes ATP
  • binds 3 sodium to cytoplasmic side of membrane at once then releases them to ECF (extracellular fluid)
  • binds 2 potassium at once from ECF & releases in cell
  • process keeps concentration of potassium higher & sodium lower within cell compared to ECF
88
Q

About how many of daily calories go towards the purpose of sodium-potassium pumps?

A

•about half

89
Q

What are at least 4 functions of the sodium potassium pump?

A
  • secondary active transport: maintains steep sodium concentration gradient (like water behind dam, gradient provides potential energy)
  • regulation of cell volume: some anions confined to cell (called fixed anions; proteins & phosphates) & attract/retain cations leading to osmotic swelling (& potentially lysis); cell swelling increases sodium-potassium pumps to prevent lysis
  • maintenance of membrane potential: pump keeps inside more negative & outside more positive; required for nerve & muscle function
  • heat production: thyroid hormone stimulates cells to produce sodium-potassium pumps; as ATP is used heat is released
90
Q

Vesicular transport

A
  • move large particles, fluid droplets, or multiple molecules simultaneously
  • whatever’s being moved is contained in vesicles
  • processes include endocytosis & exocytosis
91
Q

Vesicles

A
  • bubbles that transport large particles, fluid droplets, or multiple molecules across membrane
  • used in vesicular transport
92
Q

Endocytosis

A

•matter brought into cell through vesicular transport

93
Q

Exocytosis

A

•matter releases from cell through vesicular transport

94
Q

What are the 3 forms of endocytosis?

A
  • phagocytosis
  • pinocytosis
  • receptor-mediated endocytosis
95
Q

Phagocytosis

A
  • cell eating
  • process of surrounding bacteria/dust/cellular debris particles to kill it
  • keeps tissues free of debris/infectious microorganisms

Ex:
•neutrophils (class of white blood cell) protect body from infection
•they crawl through connective tissues using pseudopods
•finding bacterium, neutrophils surround it w/pseudopods & traps in phagosome
•lysosome merges w/phagosome (converted to phagolysosome) & destroys bacteria

96
Q

Phagosome

A
  • vesicles in cytoplasm surrounded by unit membrane
  • traps bacteria
  • connects with lysosome to destroy bacteria
97
Q

Pinocytosis

A
  • cell drinking
  • taking in droplets of ECF w/molecules of use to cell
  • occurs in all human cells
  • membranes cave in, pinch off into cytoplasm as pinocytotic vesicle
98
Q

Pinocytotic vesicles

A
  • contain ECF droplets

* pits separated from surface membrane

99
Q

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

A
  • selective endocytosis

* allows cells take in specific molecules that bind to extracellular receptors w/minimum useless matter

100
Q

Clathrin-Coated vesicles

A

Clathrin-peripheral membrane

•vesicle w/peripheral membrane

101
Q

Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)

A

•protein-coated droplets of cholesterol & other lipids in blood

A&P (11 decks)

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