Test 2 Flashcards
9 tactics for generalization
Train and Hope Sequential Modification Introduce to Natural Maintaining Contin- gencies Train Sufficient Exemplars Train Loosely Use Indiscriminable Contingencies Program Common Stimuli train to generalize mediate generalization
External validity
- The extent to which the conclusions from your research study can be generalized to the people outside of your study.
- There are three types of generalization: population, environmental, and temporal.
Internal validity
- Was the experiment done right
- Whether it avoids confounding (more than one possible independent variable [cause] acting at the same time).
- The less chance for confounding in a study, the higher its internal validity is.
Homogenious group
- similar abilities/conditions etc. in one group.
- Less range, variability than heterogeneous
How is heterogeneity related to samples
the more adequately the group represents the general population, the less relevance it will have to a specific individual.
- The better the sample the more heterogeneous the group
- specific effects of treatment get lost in the group averages.
- not helpful for the individual clinician, maybe even harmful
Logical generalization
- groups need to be homo (including control) e.e same disorder, age, degree of condition, symptoms etc.
- sacrifices random sampling and inferential statements about the population, BUT clinician can then make confident decisions ab out similar cases in that they will respond well to the same treatment.
- characteristics that are important and unimportant will depend on the judgement of the clinician
- Can test and retest multiple individuals
adequate sample
large enough to provide precision by minimizing chance
-replication in single case design makes up for the lack of participants.
random sample
Simple random sampling is the basic sampling technique where we select a group of subjects (a sample) for study from a larger group (a population). Each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
four types of generality
- generalized behaviour change outside of treatment setting
- across subjects of clients (other subjects with similar characteristics)
- across behaviour change agents (who is delivering treatment )
- setting
What are 2 limitations of group designs in establishing generality pg. 48
inferring that results from a generally homogeneous group are representative of a given population
-generalizing an average response of a heterogeneous group to an individual.
what is the problem with averaging data
doesn’t represent any individual
blocking
averaging two or more data points within a phase
- should only be used to make trends more visible
- variability does not appear
what is a trend
takes past info to make a prediction
3 patterns of variability
-subjects fail to improve (previously demonstrated to be effective)
-subjects improve spontaneously (placebo effect/during BL)
-cyclical variability (intra subject variability) eg. asthma mom example
First 2 inter subject variability
What is meant by rapidly changing designs?
make immediate changes to the experimental design based on hypothesis or unexpected changes
What is meant by repeated measurement
test one group of subjects more than once.
-within-subject design
What is meant when one highlights variability
.
What is variability
Variability is the extent to which data points in a statistical distribution or data set diverge from the average, or mean, value as well as the extent to which these data points differ from each other
What is generality of findings
The generality of a finding refers to the degree to which a functional relationship obtained in one situation is able to predict the obtained relationship in a new situation.
What is meant by statistical significance?
Statistically significant is the likelihood that a relationship between two or more variables is caused by something other than random chance
Functional relationship
relationship between IV and DV
How can statistical significance over and under estimate clinical effectiveness
ex. treatment is quite effective with a few participants but not so much with others. shows effectiveness of treatment, or not, even when there may not be for some people.
What is meant by when the data are averaged overall the subjects, the effects of the uncontrolled
variables are presumed to add algebraically to zero?
In a large group of subjects, the reasoning goes, the uncontrolled factor will change the behavior of some subjects in one direction and will affect the remaining subjects in the opposite away. When the data are averaged over all the subjects, the effects of the uncontrolled variables are presumed to add algebraically to zero.
What is meant by variability was intrinsic to the organism
due to the organism rather than the experimenter/experiment.
What is meant by behavior is a function of a multiplicity of factors
intrinsic, environment, day, people etc. lower animals don’t have as many influences
Why is replication important for generality
direct replication provides some support (can be done again with same ppl and setting ie across clients)
systematic replication needed for more advanced generalization (diff clients, people, settings)
What is the problem of generalizing from groups to an individual
data is lost in averages. One person could improve and others decrease etc.
What is a problem in obtaining a truly random sample
the more adequate the sample, the less likely it will be to the individual
Why is repeated measurement important?
Repeated measures designs can be very powerful because they control for factors that cause variability between subjects. Fewer subjects: Thanks to the greater statistical power, a repeated measures
What is meant by searching for sources of variability
test each variable while holding the other constant e.g. visitinoing mother or relatives.
Train to generalize
- provide R for generalization
- instructed gen (tell them)
- teach parents
mediate generalization
- verbal mediators (if you know the steps toggle, verbally remind yourself when you are doing it)
- self recording and reporting
- additional prompts to promote
program common stimuli
functional programming (us as realistic materials as possible e.g. real money instead of pretend) -the more similar the training environment the more generalization will occur
indiscriminate contingencies
intermittent reinforcement maintains behaviour an promotes generalization
e.g. if someone next to you is reinforced for studying, your behaviour will increase.
train loosely
teach with little control over the stimulus and correct responses
-needs more research
train sufficient exemplars
rule governed behaviour, train to greet teacher, all others etc.
- identify relevant and irrelevant dimensions (pop machine example)
- needs more research on how many examples are needed.
introduce to natural maintaining contingencies
-teach bx that are naturally maintained/restructure environment
P: DV
mikes work completion rate in the presence of crickets
-past research didn’t include, but part of diagnosis is impaired performance
p: iv
treatment - graduated exposure of contingent rewards for math problem completion
P: assessment
showed low pref when live crickets, but not when tx said there were.
- bugs
- no bugs
- say bugs
P: treatment
- exposure alone, no effect. exposure plus reward large effect.
- 2 conditions
- GE see hierarchy
- Mike selected, and continued until he refused
P: method
2/3 4 min math probes each session
-told do do as many as he could (response rate was mean CR per probe)
p iOA:
low set by higher and times 100%
M - 98%
last 2…?
train and hope
sequential modification
P R+
earned points for each CR
P type of design
multielement design
A-B-BC-A-BC
P downfalls
- reversal was not conclusive
- did not allow a B-BC comparison
- Did not test generalization
m 1-3
M1 operate toys
M2 social attention preference
M3 requests in school/community
M1 purpose
- goal to replicate previous study
- 5 students w/ ID, no prev participation, 13-20
M1 DV
reach and press a switch placed directly in front of them. Duration responding was recorded (D because the goal was to increase the sustained responses)
M1 reliability
probes were done 3 times per student 24% of sessions
M1 IOA
snmall/larger duration then times by 100
80-100%
M92%
M1 design
multiple baseline across students with alternating treatments design
M1 IV
- session up to 15min with 4 sessions per day
- baseline done
- student positioned, microswitch was placed in from of them,(jack on arm) reward placed behind the tape player, verbal request “press this switch” with a demonstration and physical guidance and praise. 2 sec delay between demo and FP.
- this was modelled at the start of session then again every 5 minutes
- when buttons pressed toy went on (didn’t during baseline).
M1 results
-4/5 low duration during baseline
-all students showed sig increase during treatment
-3 showed pref for one toy over the others—–replicated previous findings
students were participating in leisure activities for the first time.
M1 limitations
- dependent on the availability of specific devise
- not transportable to community settings.
M2 purpose
- more generalizable
- social praise is not often evaluated experimentally
- used microswitches to evaluate the R+ value of social rewards
- H if social attention is R+ the frequency would increase
M2 methods
- same 2 ppl from experiment one. 9 ppl total
- same setting
- all similar in ability
- multiple baselines across students with alternating treatment design
- all students received 5 treatment sessions out of 10
M2 DV
the number of names played during a session
- 1s for each name to be played with 1 s between each named
- contact switches or mercury switches
M2 BL/treatment
IV
same as exp 1 except all baselines were 30 min
-two treatment conditions
1) name only (same as baseline)
2) name plus attention(gave attention/praise)
R+ was for at least 5 s or as long as the tape was played.
M2 results
8/9 low frequency during BL
-immediate increase in frequency for 7 students in the first treatment session
-one student showed no increase
-3 patterns of performance dotted for the 8 successful students:
1-2 conditions showed similar performance in the beginning, but then attention increased
2-1 condition was superior initially
3-1 showed higher responding from the start
conclude social attention is reinforcing for 8/9
M3P1 methods
used same switches and tape player in Ex2, used 3 of the same students, total 6
- activities were drinking or playing
- setting classroom
M3P2 methods
-done after phase 1
- 3 of the same students participated
6 ppl total
-have received toy preference and used microswitches if not in the previous experiment
-setting shopping mall, activities drink or window shopping (socially valid)
M3P1 procedures
-alternating treatment design
-each participant received 4 BL 20min each, the 8 treatment sessions
-Data Frequency. same prompting
BL blank tape
T same as ex 2 except specific message was played.
e.g. drink/play message, then the teacher would give drink for the total frequency.
M3P2 procedures
simultaneous treatment design
-window shopped until they pressed the microswitch, then got a drink for the duration the switch was played or 5 min
-at the start of each session, brought to the counter and give en 30s to press ind. if prompting was needed they would and get the drink, but leave right after
-returned each time the message was activated
sessions were 20min and done once per week. 4 sessions total done
M3 results
all students showed a pref in P1 (play)
5/6 showed preference in P2 (restaurant)
-some needed prompts when they first got to the location
M limitations
- only one message at a time
- minimal reliability data was obtained
