Test 2 Flashcards
A consequentialist ethic.
The ends (consequences) justify the means.
The greatest good for the greatest number.
A hedonistic calculus. Pleasure is good. Pain is bad.
Any action where the good outweighs the bad is morally defensible.
The good action is the most useful action.
Utilitarianism
Identify the possible action. Identify the goods (pleasures) produced. Identify the harms (pains) produced. Sum each side of the equation. Hence the action is justified the good consequences outweigh the bad.
Strict Utilitarian Calculus
An 18th and 19th century Englishman.
The father of Utilitarianism.
Jeremy Bentham
“Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is from them alone to point out what we ought to do…”
Bentham
19th century English philosopher.
Tries to deepen the meaning of pleasure beyond the “crude”, pleasure pain calculus of Bentham.
It is not mere decadence that should enter the calculus nor mere quantity, but also quality. (Different kinds of pleasure should be weighed more heavily.)
John Stuart Mill
“It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates satisfied than a fool satisfied.”
Although the pig is completely happy the quality of his happiness pales in comparison to that of even a dissatisfied human being.
Mill
There is something intuitive about considering the consequences of action.
We expect that right action will produce good results.
Flexible to the situation.
Hedonism seems plausible.
We do seem to enjoy/pursue pleasure and avoid pain.
Utilitarianism Appeals
How are we to quantify the good?
Limits to knowledge; how could we ever know enough to decide what the “greatest good” really is?
Implies that the line between cause and effect is clear, but that may not always be the case.
There is no intrinsically wrong actions, only good or bad results; can justify all kinds of evil, as long as the good produced outweighs the evil required.
Utilitarianism Criticized
Once one adopts a consequentialist attitude it may be very tempting to adopt an “ends justify the means” position but only apply it to yourself. (The greatest pleasure for me…by any means necessary)
Human beings will easily rationalize their own selfish behavior under the guise of utilitarianism.
If it Feels Good…Do It?
Far too pessimistic.
People can, with sound education and an emphasis on reason, learn to think about the greater good.
People are basically good. Many alleged moral problems are just “traditionalist hang-ups”.
Demands the greater good. Not mere pleasure for the self, but maximized pleasure.
Utilitarian Response to Criticism
Ethics is matter of rules or duties that flow from the rational recognition of intrinsic moral goods. (Tell the truth, don’t steal, etc.)
These truths can be either absolutely binding or conditionally binding. (A more pressing principle may usurp a lower principle.)
Deontological Ethics
18th Century German philosopher.
Categorical Imperative
Immanuel Kant
“Act only on that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it would become a universal law”
Translation: Any individual action - that could be defended if every one else followed suit - is defensible. (This is a product of reason not emotion)
If I can not recommend that everyone lie then I cannot defend my own lying.
1st Formulation of Categorical Imperative (Kant)
“So act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of any other, in every case as an end and never as a means only.”
Translation: Human being have inherent worth and should therefore never be used as a means to further some other ends.
2nd Formulation of Categorical Imperative (Kant)
Not wishy-washy.
Based on reason not emotion. (Principles matter not situations or outcomes)
Takes human beings seriously. (Human beings are ends in themselves not servants of the greatest good for the greatest number)
Strengths of Kant (Deontology)
Based of reason not emotion. (Should ethics be so cold? Shouldn’t feeling play a role? Why is duty supreme?)
Seems rigid and inflexible. (Is it alway wrong (categorically wrong) to lie? i.e. Telling your grandma her dress is ugly, Telling Nazis your hiding Jews in your basement, etc.)
Weaknesses of Kant (Deontology)
Intuitionism (We are intuitively aware of moral principles).
Our duties are prima facie duties that can be over-ridden in certain circumstances by other prima facie duties. (“Intrinsic value not dependent on circumstances, but application is” i.e. what are my relevant duties in this situation?)
Running the red light to get to the Hospital.
Is this moving us towards virtue ethics?
Modification of Kant
“Do unto other as you would have them do unto you”
Golden Rule
Not focused on rules or duties.
Not focused on outcomes or consequences.
Focused on the good, the excellent, the noble.
Character and maturity are the goals.
Sometimes called aretaic ethics from the Greek Arete meaning the “embodiment of excellence”
Virtue Ethics
Two different types of questions.
What should I do? What are my duties? vs. What sort of person should I be? What sort of character does the good person have?
Difference between Deontology and Virtue
Subordinates rules to human judgment without discounting the importance of rules.
“the law was made for man, not man for the law” (The rules are tools that help us see and understand the good. They are not themselves that good. People need to evaluate, understand, and embody the spirit of the rules not merely follow its letter.)
Emphasizes the importance of action, practice, and habit. (To understand the good and to be good are two different things.)
Strengths of Virtue Ethics
Doesn’t the abdication of rules and duties lend it to relativism?
How does one identify virtues? Aren’t all virtues derivative of duties (honesty: Tell the Truth).
Deontological Criticisms of Virtue Ethics
Is it an impossible burden? (Virtue ethics requires saints? That’s just not realistic).
Utilitarian Criticism of Virtue Ethics
Greek philosopher (4th Century B.C.) Nichomachean Ethics
Aristotle
Nichomachean Ethics
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Goods Ethics is social and tied to human nature. Virtue Habit The Mean
Goods as means and goods as ends.
Happiness is that good at which all other goods aim. (Happiness is to live in accord with our nature.)
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic
Medicine is good because it leads to health.
Wealth is good because it makes other things possible. It is a tool for other goods. (money for life, not life for money)
Examples of Extrinsic Goods
Three common definitions of Happiness
The pleasurable life
The honorable life
The contemplative life
Human beings are social creatures (Ethics is not merely personal but a matter of how we order our lives together.)
What is the function of man?
Social & Natural
Embodying those excellences that are naturally human.
We become virtuous not merely by understanding the good but by practicing the good…and then becoming good.
A process of maturation and growth.
A recognition of the goodness of an action.
Virtue & Habit
Aristotle identifies virtues as the mean between two extremes each of which is a vice. (The mean should not be understood as a mathematical value or a blasé mediocrity but rather a “just right” recognition of proper action.)
Ex: The virtue of courage is neither foolhardy not cowardly, nor is it 50% foolhardiness and 50% cowardliness.
Virtue as a Mean
The Classical (The Four Cardinal) Virtues
Prudence
Justice
Courage
Moderation
The ability to see things are they are (reality) and then act accordingly.
Prudence
To live rightly, with other people. To give each his dessert. To treat others as you ought.
Justice
The “readiness to accept harm for the sake of realizing the good”. A willingness to suffer for the truth.
Courage
The proper use of possessions and enjoyment (pleasure). “Nothing in excess.”
Moderation
Good? (intrinsically) A virtue…
Good as a tool (extrinsically) We put up with it merely because we don’t want to have to constantly look over our shoulder.
Contractual arrangement where we trade our freedom for order and safety.
What is Justice?
Justice is an end in itself. (Justice is “good for” our “mental health” [better word might be “being” or “soul”])
Just behavior is in alignment with our nature.
Justice allows us to “tame” the wildness within our “souls”.
Socrates Answer to the Ring of Gyges
Justice does not serve us, we sere justice…justice is the good, so we cannot ultimately be successful in opposition to it. (Principles trump consequences)
Understanding of good/evil (Injustice is a corruption of how things should be and therefore cannot profit us [at least not long-term]).
Transcendence
Not a new thesis but one he attacks in a new way: “Living an ethical life is not self-sacrifice, but rather self-fulfillment.”
Essentially turning morality into a tool. (Consequentialism)
Doing good is good because it is good for you.
Antithesis of Plato’s position.
Singer’s Thesis
Cooperation possible even in the most adverse circumstances (WWI [soldiers avoid killing each other on purpose]).
Cooperation is in fact an everyday occurrence. (Most obvious in small communities).
Live and Let Live
Your confession will be used against your fellow prisoner for a 10 year sentence and you’ll be free.
If you both confess you both get 8 years.
If you both don’t confess you get 6 months.
You don’t confess and he does you get 10 years and he goes free.
Prisoner’s Dilemma
Sometimes self-interest leaves us worse off than collective interest. (self-interest would be to rat out the fellow prisoner…but if you both rat each other out…you get eight years and nobody goes free.)
Singer’s Point
Cooperate on the first move, then reciprocate.
Tit for Tat
Reciprocation rewards god behavior and punishes bad behavior.
If we respond to bad behavior with kindness we become ‘suckers’ and ‘cheating’ prospers. (Singer claims that it refutes ‘turing the other cheek’)
Strength of Tit for Tat
Seems somewhat contrived.
Assumes that there are “good” and “bad” people rather than good and bad actions.
Inflexible…in principle there is no room for judgment or contextualization.
Seems to ignore ‘truth as such’ in favor of strategy (utilitarian)
Weaknesses of Tit or Tat
Doing even better with Tit or Tat? (steps of tit-for-tat)
Step #1 - Begin with cooperation Step #2 - Reciprocate Step #3 - Keep it Simple Step #4 - Be Forgiving Step #5 - Don't be Envious
Be optimistic and willing to risk.
The level of risk should fit the situation.
Will work best in long-term or lasting relationships.
Step #1 - Begin with Cooperation
Good for Good, Harm for Harm.
Tough to say when to stop cooperating, but you should be willing to.
Step #2 - Reciprocate
Life not zero-sum. (your benefit does not have to come at the harm of others).
Probably don’t need it for close relationships.
“Genuine concern for others in, then, the complete solution to the Prisoner’s dilemma.”
Disciplining a child is not ‘forgiving’ but it does have their best interest at heart.
Step #3 - Keep it Simple
Be willing to return to a cooperative spiral, otherwise ther is no escape from negative spirals.
Step #4 - Be Forgiving
Envy leads to negative spirals. (their gain is your loss)
Being able to enjoy what you have will lead to cooperation.
Step #5 - Don’t be Envious
Ethical living will lead to a better life (enlightened self-interest)
Look to cooperate but be willing to reciprocate.
Tit for tat and enlightened self-interest seem to fit our biology.
Given this perhaps we’re ready to find reasons to live besides material possessions…a transcendent cause (a purpose in life?)
Preliminary Conclusions of Tit for Tat
Something larger for the self is what’s good for us…it is enlightened self-interest.
The Idea of Transcendence fitting into Singer’s Utilitarian Commitments
The soul’s “desiring and spirited parts” must be tamed by the “reasonable” part.
To serve injustice, even if ‘profitable’, is to be self destructive.
Plato
Are there good reasons to do the right thing if we knew that we could get away with being unjust…
Is justice good independent of the consequences?
Glaucon’s Doubts
Gyges finds a ring that turns him invisible.
He is now capable of doing anything…why should he be just?
He seduces the queen and kills the king…why should he do otherwise?
Glaucon’s Story
