Test 1 Flashcards
The philosophical school that endorses the idea that “all we have are arguments”.
Sophists
The art of persuasion
Rhetoric
Everywhere
Ubiquitous
Questions about the nature of things.
Metaphysics
Describes the way things are.
Descriptive Ethics
Real answers can be found to moral questions and are not a mere matter of culture.
Realism
Moral judgments are related to their culture, religion, class, etc.
No rational basis for ethical claims.
They are simply a product of our environment.
Descriptive Relativism
Outcome of descriptive relativism.
Who knows anything?
Philosophical Skepticism
A critical analysis of views, rather than accepting things at face value.
Skepticism
Outcome of descriptive relativism.
Each culture’s morals are right for that culture.
Because we are just products of our cultures.
Ethical Relativism
- “such a view would not be held if impartially considered”
- “our views are inconsistent”
- our “view has acceptable implications for actions”
3 ways to undermine an ethical claim
Ontological; built into the very structure of reality, mysterious, cosmic, “our master”
Transcendent
The study of being.
Ontology
A function of pleasure.
Good = Pleasure
Evil = Pain
Hedonistic
Good and evil are social constructs and are either totally illusory or are useful constructs, that allow society to function. No mystery, morality a tool that serves man, we are its master.
Morality is made, and therefore can be remade.
Therefore it can be a tool by which to justify the position of the powerful.
Illusion/Useful Fiction
Usually leads to a religious interpretation of life.
The Good is seen as truth and/or God (the source of our very being) and evil is seen as the loss of that truth.
Transcendence
Two popular ways Transcendent explains evil
Corruption
Evil is the opposite of Good
Pleasure, pleasure, pleasure. Immediate Gratification.
Worried about our experiences (here and now)
Crude Hedonism
Embraces deeper/long term pleasures.
“Happiness”, Friendship, etc.
Philosophical Hedonism
“The more you pursue pleasure the further it is from your grasp.”
The Paradox of Hedonism
Related to relativism
Concerned about the abuse of the powerful on the powerless. The powerful make and enforce the laws; which can be designed to suit the needs of those in power.
Morality as a Fiction
How can an omnipotent and good God allow evil? Doesn’t evil prove that God is either not omnipotent or not good?
The Problem of Evil
Christian morality distorts a true understanding of good and evil, and the nature of morality.
True morality is the “will to power”
The powerful rise above and dominate the weak.
If morality is a fiction, there is no such thing as abuse.
The weak align themselves with Christian morality not because it is true but because it hampers the powerful.
The weak “resent” the powerful.
“God is Dead”
Nietzsche
Modern society not the pinnacle of human achievement
The growth caused by modernity has led to standardization of culture in much of the world and a false sense of universality and ‘human nature’
Normality/Abnormality culturally defined.
Human morals are born of culture
Benedict’s Case for Relativism
Culture matters, no one can escape the influence of culture
Both progress and regress is possible
Strength of Benedict
Simon: Just because there are different moralities (descriptive relativism) it does not follow that there are no right answers.
The existence of different answers does not necessarily imply that there is no right answer.
If morality is mere culture, then to acknowledge culture as the root of all morality is itself culturally defined.
Weakness of Benedict
They do not need to deny the importance and power of culture.
They simply need to deny that morality is only a matter of culture
(washing hands)
Realism can admit to Cultural Influence
Judging is necessary
Judgment allows us to see past prejudice, but only if we’re allowed to judge.
Morality requires judgement.
Elshtain
Informed
Judgment
Ignorant
Prejudice
Victimization and “self-esteem” run amok.
Inability to appreciate the difference between the doer and the deed.
Any criticism is considered an unbearable personal attack.
To be held accountable and responsible. Standards and behavior matter.
Gave Judgment a Bad Name (Elshtain)
Fair rather than punitive.
Willing to embrace compassion
Acts may be considered wrong but people should be considered redeemable.
Good Judgment
Is moral judgment merely “a kind of coinage valid only in the country of its origin”?
Moral Isolationism
This would leave us in the untenable position of neither criticizing nor receiving criticism.
Prohibits praise as much as it prohibits condemnation.
Although we should reject crude judgment it is the crudeness not the judgment that is the problem.
Our ability to judge our own culture would be deeply impaired.
Reasons to Reject Moral Isolationism
If there was really an isolating barrier, then our own culture could never have been formed.
Our culture consists of many different cultural influences.
Midgley’s Clincher
(Questioning) Pushes us closer to the truth by testing positions so we know what to accept or reject and how strongly or weakly to accept them.
Socratic Method
What we ought to think and do.
Normative Ethics
Allows us to critically examine our assumptions.
Unwilling to accept the status quo just because it is the status quo.
Instead we should be willing to examine and clarify our beliefs.
Value of Philosophy
Consensus/disagreement are not the fix or the problem.
What counts is the reasons we give to support our claims.
All disagreement proves is disagreement.
Reasons Simon Critiques Relativism
Unwillingness to condemn any behavior.
May be a reaction to moral bullying by groups.
Absolutophobia
Admit that moral reasoning while to reveal truths, is not mathmatic.
Commit to impartiality.
Systemic consistency.
Applying thinking to concrete examples.
Ways to be a Realist without being a Fanatic
Different schools of thought for Good & Evil
Transcendent
Hedonistic
Illusion/Useful Fiction
A falling away from the truth, a falling away from our intended being; a lack of being.
Christianity usually interprets evil this way.
Corruption
Two cosmic forces battling each other.
Good needs Bad.
Evil is the opposite of Good
Nietzsche’s Assumptions
Christian Ethics (Slave Morality) Will to Power (Master Morality)
Human dignity, Equality before God, Reality of God, Humility, kindness, forgiveness, etc. are virtues.
Christian Ethics (Slave Morality)
Humans are clearly unequal in skill, intelligence, courage, etc. God is a fiction, therefore equality before God is a fiction. To pretend otherwise merely restrains human excellence, pride, and ability. It celebrates “the herd” at the cost of individual excellence.
Will to Power (Master Morality)
