Test 2 Flashcards
what are the two purposes of excretion
- Eliminate undigested food and toxins and metabolism wastes
- Recover ions and water
Pyloric valve
valve between midgut and hindgut
rectal pads
large specialized cells in the hindgut/rectum that are involved in the uptake of materials from the lumen to the hemolymph
Cryptonephridium
A modification of the excretory system in insects that live in dry habitats. The distal ends of the malpighian tubules are in direct contact with the rectum and remove water and salts before they are excreted
Diuretic hormones
hormones peptides produced in neurosecretory cells of the brain that increase Malpighian tubule activity
kinins, corticotrophin like peptides, and CAPA
Urate cells
specialized cells of the fat body where uric acid is stored and mobilized during periods of dietary stress
Uric acid
the primary waste product of insects that occurs during the metabolism of nucleic acids and proteins
Uricotelic pathway
Nitrogenous waste products (proteins) are broken down into uric acid and ultimately ammonia. High cost because it uses 8 ATP
Malpighian tubules
arise from the hindgut primorida. They are tubular epithelium of principal and stellate cells & surrounded by muscle cells. They actively uptake nitrogenous wastes and water from the hemolymph and filter it.
Principal cells
Found in the Malpighian tubules and regulate the ion balance and fluid secretion
Meconium
metabolic waste of a pupae after they have emerged from the pupal stage as an adult
stellate cells
Found in the Malpighian tubules. Regulate water and chloride balance
Brochosomes
granules produced in the Malpighian tubulues and are secreted by the anus. Leafhoppers use this to cover their bodies so that they don’t stick and they repel water
Goblet Cells
Cells found in the midgut that aid in the retention of Sodium and elimination of potassium. Found in herbivores
V-ATPase
Found in Goblet cells of the midgut epithelium. It is a proton pump that exchanges potassium and other ions for hydrogen, resulting in a high pH
Gynandromorphs
insects that have mixed sex characters
Accessory gland
gland in male and females. In males they produce seminal fluids, spermatophore, and active peptides that affect the female
Asexual reproduction
(parthenogenesis) a type of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of gametes or change in the number of chromosomes
Sex polymorphisms
male and female look differently
Arrhenotoky
A type of parthenogenesis that results in the production of only male offspring
Thelytoky
a type of parthenogensis that results in the production of only female offspring
Wolbachia
an intracellular bacteria that affects sex determination
Barr body
is an inactive X chromosome in a cell with more than one X chromosome
Sex-lethal
a sex determining gene in drosophila. It induces female-specific alternative splicing of the transformer (tra) pre-mRNA
Transformer
family of genes which regulate sex determination in insects such as flies. Among its effects, it regulates differences between males and females in Drosophila fruit flies.
Doublesex
a gene that is involved in the sex determination system of many insects including the fruit fly Drosophila
Vas efferens
A tube that connects each testicular follicle with the vas deferens
Vas deferens
the duct of the male reproductive system that connects the vas efferens with the ejaculatory duct. It may be enlarged into a seminal vesicle for the storage of sperm
Seminal vesicle
The enlarged area of the vas deferens of the male reproductive system that serves as a storage reservoir for sperm
Hub cells
Cells in the testis that support the germline stem cells and the somatic cyst cells. produce a self-renewal factor, that activates the JAK-STAT pathway in adjacent stem cells to regulate stem cell behavior.
Somatic cyst cells
maintain germline stem cells and assist in the processes of directed differentiation of their daughters, modulating external signals and creating a microenvironment of differentiating germ cells throughout spermatogenesis
what are the two sperm types in lepidoptera?
Eupyrene - involved in fertilization
Apyrene - lack nuceli and no now genetic function
Axoneme
The organelle that propels the sperm by causing the flagellum to move. The axoneme consists of a series of microtubules
Acrosome
The organelle at the tip of the sperm that is derived from the golgi apparatus and breaks down the egg membrane to allow the sperm to penetrate for fertilization
insemination
semen with spermatozoa is placed in the female reproductive tract and migrates to the bursa copulatrix and then to the spermatheca for storage
Spermatophores
A secretion of the male accessory glands that surrounds the sperm and protects it during transit to the female
Sphragis
A viscous secretion which is molded with membranous or sclerotized pockets in the male genitalia and extrudes onto the female and harden to prevent her from mating with others.
Diplodiploidy
diploid genome with one halpoid genome from each parent
Parthenogenesis
development of unfertilized eggs
Zygogenesis
fusion of haploid male and female gametes and development diploid embryo. Gender is determined by autosome and sex chromosome ratio
Automictic parthenogenesis
is a postmeiotic process in which a haploid cell may either duplicate its chromosomes or join with another haploid cell. results in a diploid offspring
Apomictic parthenogensis
the offspring are clones of the mother and hence (except for aphids) are usually female
Amphimixis
sexual reproduction involving the fusion of two different gametes to form a zygote
Hermaphroditism
fertilization by sperm of egg by the same individual
Oviparity
egg oviposition
Ovoviparity
retention of eggs with no nourishment from the female, allowing for the completion of embryological development
eg: blowflies
Hemocelous viviparity
ovaries free within the fat body so eggs in body cavity/hemolymph. Follicle cells form trophamnion that that feeds the embryo/larvae
eg: strepsiptera
Pseudoplacental vivparity
little yolk and developing embryo receives nourishment through a pseudoplacenta formed by follicle cells.
eg: aphids, earwigs, blattidae, pscoptera
Matrotrophic viviparity
fertilized eggs retained in brood sac or uterus during embryogenesis and even early instars and fed on milk secretions until exit.
Paedogenesis
immature stages have functional ovaries and can reproduce pathenogenically.
eg: strepsiptera, bagworms, some aphids and gall midges
Polyembryony
two or more embryo are produced from a single egg
Deutocerebrum
The middle portion of the insect brain which produces neurons that innervate the antennae
Tritocerebrum
The third lobe of the brain, serving primarily to interegrate sensory information and connect the brain to the visceral nervous system
Protocerebrum
the anterior and most complex lobe of the brain, subdivided into protocerebral and optic lobes
hypocerebral ganglion
a part of the stomodeal nervous system; a group of neurons that begins at the frontal ganglion and continues rearward to innervate the gut
brain/Supraesophageal ganglia
includes the optic center, areas of behavioral regulation and centers of integrative learning.
Subesophageal ganglion
the first ganglion of the ventral nerve cord, consisting of fused mandibular, maxillary, and labial segments
Thoracic ganglia
contains sensory and motor centers for each segment that coordinate muscles controlling legs, wings and thoracic segments
abdominal ganglia
fuse to form the caudal or terminal ganglion and innervate the abdomen.
terminal ganglia
controls muscular activities involved in copulation and oviposition
interganglionic connectives
chord that connect the different ganglion. some ganglion are directly connected
parts of the peripheral nervous system
- Efferent of motor nerves - from CNS to muscles and other organs
- Afferent or sensory nerves - information to CNS motor and sensory
blood-brain barrier
a highly selective border around the brain that regulates the passage of molecules to maintain favorable environment
Perikaryon
a nerve cell body that contains a nucleus
Glial cells
an accessory cell that surrounds neuron and provides them with nourishment and insulation
Neuropil
the mass of neurons within a ganglion that are synaptically dense and contain few cell bodies
Corpora pedunculata (mushroom bodies)
The mushroom bodies of the protocerebral lobes of the brain. They contain abundant nerve cell perikarya and interneurons. Their size is correlated with behavioral complexity and is most highly developed in social hymenoptera that display complex behaviors. SITE OF SENSORY INTEGRATION AND MEMORY
chiasmata
the crossing over of nerve tracts
Monopolar-single axon neuron
A type of neuron where dendrites are the input, axons are the output, and are type I somatosensory
Bipolar two axon neurons
A type of neuron that is the peripheral receptor of cells
Multipolar-stretch receptors on muscles and other tissues
A type of neuron with input and output synapses interspersed so that each branch functions as a separate computational unit
Nociceptive Neurons
specialized subset of sensory neurons that mediate pain and densely innervate peripheral tissues including the skin, joints, respiratory, and gastrointestinal tract
neuroblasts
cell that gives rise to neurons
neurogenesis
the process by which neurons are formed
growth cone
a large actin-supported extension of a developing or regenerating neurite seeking its synaptic target
Trichobothria
elongate setae on the integument that function in the detection of airborne vibrations, currents and electrical charge. Unlike ordinary setae, which are tapered, they are the same thinkness throughout their length
Bristles/Setae/sensilla
Sensory organs on the integument, protrude from the cuticle and function in mechanical, thermal, and chemoreception.
internal chordotonal/scolopophorous organ
a integument sense organ that is believed to be auditory in function. It consists of one or more bipolar nerve cell, a scolopale cell around a dendrite, a sheath cell, and attachment cells at both ends to integument or trachea.
Campaniform sensilla
mechanoreceptors which respond to local strain within the insects cuticle. They function as proprioceptors that detect mechanical load as resistance to muscle contraction. They are a dome embeded in a spongy socket and innervated by dendrites of a single biopolar sensory neuron. Found on legs, antennae, halteres, etc.
internal stretch receptors
multipolar neurons that usually are found on muscle or connective tissue. Commonly found embedded in intersegmental membranes and in the muscular walls of the gut.
Proprioception
perception or awarness of the position and movememnt of the body “sense of self”. Sensory feedback during locomotion and balance
Nociception
the perception of pain or injury. It is the ability to detect noxious stimuli which evokes some type of response away from the stimulus
Gustatory sensilla
chemoreceptive organ involved in taste. They are found on almost all regions of the body and appendages. There are many taste centers in the ventral ganglia
Campaniform sensilla
raised or sunken domes on the exoskeleton. Function to compression of the dendritic sheath/tubular body by distorations in the shape of the dome. They function in the negative reflex arcs to control muscle tensions in appendages and on flying insects, detect air pressure.
trichoid sensilla
tapered hairs on the integument
tactile hairs
numerous and function to dectect air movement or surrounding substrate
hair plates/hair sensilla
hair sensilla that monitor the position of nearby cuticular elements and act as pressure receptors
hair sensilla functions
- tacile hairs to detect air movement and surrounding substrate
- hair plates monitor position of cuticular elements, act a pressure montior
- principal gravity receptor
Tormogen cell
An epidermal that is part of a cell cluster organ and secretes the socket in the integument
Tricogen cell
A large cell that secretes the long, tapering hair of the insect bristle
progenitor cell
A stem cell in the epidermis that develop the mechanosensory neurons by the expression of the atonal gene
Johnston’s Organ
A Chordotonal organ in the second antennal segment of an insects. Sound waves vibrate the antennae and these vibrations are detected by this organ and thus are used to detect sound.
Antennal ears
respond to particle velocity component of sound- vibration of antennae
Tympanal ears
sound-receiving eardrum (tympanum) respond to sound pressure differences. Thin cuticle areas associate with air sac.
Pilifer organ
part of a hearing organ found on the heads of hawkmoths
stretch receptor
multidendritic neurons with free nerve endings. scolopidium on either side of the midline in four abdominal segments that record pressure from stretching during blood feeding
infrared detection
found in the second and third abdominal segments and function as thermo and mechanosensory unit together. Used to find freshly burnt areas to deposit eggs in fire beetles
transient receptor potential (TRP)
proteins with 6 transmembrane subunits that assemble as tetramers or dimers, tethered to cytoskeleton, to form cation pores.
Myofibril
any of the elongated contractile threads found in striated muscle cells and function in muscle contraction
actin
Actin is a highly abundant intracellular protein present in all eukaryotic cells and has a pivotal role in muscle contraction as well as in cell movements. Actin also has an essential function in maintaining and controlling cell shape and architecture.
sarcolemma
(cell membrane of muscle) It acts as a barrier between the extracellular and intracellular compartments, defining the individual muscle fiber from its surroundings.
sarcoplasm
(cytoplasm) plays a critical role in muscle contraction as an increase in Ca2+ concentration in the sarcoplasm begins the process of filament sliding. A decrease in Ca2+ in the sarcoplasm subsequently ceases filament sliding. The sarcoplasm also aids in pH and ion balance within muscle cells.
T tubule
invaginations of the plasma membrane, which are present exclusively in striated muscle. Their role is to maintain the SR calcium store under the tight control of membrane depolarization via the voltage sensor channel DHPR [2
Myogenesis
the formation of skeletal muscular tissue, particularly during embryonic development.
Terminal cisterna
discrete regions within the muscle cell. They store calcium (increasing the capacity of the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium) and release it when an action potential courses down the transverse tubules, eliciting muscle contraction.
muscle triad
the structure formed by a T tubule with a sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) known as the terminal cisterna on either side.
sarcoplasmic reticulum
a membrane-bound structure found within muscle cells that is similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum in other cells. The main function of the SR is to store calcium ions (Ca2+).
Myosin
a fibrous protein that consists of an actin binding head (ATPase), lever-neck, and a tail. It converts chemical energy in the form of ATP to mechanical energy, thus generating force and movement.
Actin
a monomeric unit of the linear polymer microfilament called F-actin with myosin binding sites. Essential for mobility and contraction of cells during cell division
clap and fling mechanisms
wings clapped together and flung open before start of downstroke, generating a lift enhancing vortex
asynchronous flight
muscle contraction is not dependent on nerve impulses.
muscle contraction triggered by
stretch activation follow by shortening deactivation
asynchronous flight
muscle contraction is independent on nerve impulses
what is the energy source for flight muscle contraction
O2
what is the fuel source for flight muscle contraction?
ATP, arginine phosphate, glucose from glycogen, fatty acids from di-triacylglycerides.
What is formed during anaerobic metabolism
lactic acid
adhesive attachment organs
used to attach to smooth surfaces. sometimes capillary action
carotenoid pigments
naturally occurring pigments synthesized by plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria
Rhabdomere
a regular array of microvilli along the margin of a retinula cell that forms part of the light-sensitive apparatus and, in some compound eyes, is united with those of adjacent cells to form a rhabdom.
retinula cells
a group of elongate neural receptor cells forming part of an arthropod compound eye: each retinula cell leads to a nerve fiber passing to the optic ganglion.
r-opsins
photoreceptor molecules that can change their conformation from a resting state to a signalling state upon light absorption, which activates the G protein, thereby resulting in a signalling cascade that produces physiological responses.
ocelli
signal lens covering few to photoreceptor cells - similar to mammalian eyes
stemmata (lateral ocelli)
during metamorphosis of some insects, they migrate into the brain and remain rudimentary but photosensitive during compound eye development
Function of ocelli
detect light levels and guide body orientation. Sends information to protocerebrum to motor systems in throacic ganglia
ommatidia
each of the optical units that make up the compound eye
Dioptric apparatus:
formed from the lens and the cone and refracts incoming light down into a receptor region containing visual pigment. The light focusing part of the eye
Corneal lens
formed by corneagen cells/primary pigment cells
crystalline cone
a hard, clear intracellular structure bordered laterally by the primary pigment cells. focuses light onto a concentrated point at
the bottom of the cone. Intracellular structure formed by Sempter cells.
Not present in eyes of all insects.
Sempter cells
Below the cornea are 4 cells called the Semper cells which in most insects produce the crystalline cone.
Photoreceptor
Each ommatidium houses eight to nine photoreceptors known as retinula cells. Photoreceptors have rhabdomeres, microvillar structures where visual pigments are densely packed.
retinular cells
nerve cells that are arranged in one or two layers and surrounded by corneal pigment cells. they initiate the nerve impulse in the sensory axon
Rhabdom
retinal rods made up of the
interdigitating microvilli from the retinula cells
Rhodopsin
pigment found in the rods of the retina and is a G-protein-coupled receptor. converts light energy into electrical energy throuhg a membrane bound opsin(G-protein coupled receptor +retinal (carotenoid)
what is used as a neurotransmitter in retinular cells
histamine
what establish photoperiodism and circadian rhythms
photoreceptor cells in the optic lobe
Chemical recognition
the process by which the potential energy existing in the mutual attraction and repulsion of the particles making up atoms is detected.
sensilla
chemoreceptive organs in insects
contact reception/gustation
taste through gustatory sensilla, which are found on almost all regions of the body and appendages. Many taste centers in the ventral ganglia
volatile reception/olfaction
the sense of smell through olfactory sensilla that are almost exclusively found on the antennae and connect to the bilateral glomeruli in the deuterocerebrum
known gustatory ligands
- phagostimulants: Amino acids, GABA, b-alinine,
2. Deterrents: other L-AAs terpenoids and antagonists of GABA
what are the basic tastes of insects?
sweet, bitter, pheromones, salty, sour?, Umami?
semiochemicals
A chemical that is involved in communication between two organisms. signal chemicals -mostly modified fatty acids and isoprenes e.g., pheromones & Allelochemicals
Pheromones
a type of semiochemical produced and recognized within species. functions in reproductive behavior, kin recognition, and heirarchy
Contact pheromone
a semiochemical that are low volatile cuticular hydrocarbons on the body or feces
Primer pheromones
a semiochemical produced by an individual of ones species that has an immediate effect on releasing some behavior of other individuals of that same species.
releaser pheromones
a semiochemical that rapidly stimulate but degrade quickly. It is a chemical released by an individuals of one species that has an immediate effect on releasing some behavior of another individual of that same species. e.g., sex attractants, trail, alarm, and aggregation pheromones
allelochemicals
chemicals that are released by one species and perceived by another species.
allomones
a type of allelochemical that confer an advantage for the producing species.
kairomones
a type of allelochemical that confer an advantage for the receiving species.
synomones
a type of allelochemical that are adavantageous for both the emitting and receiving species.
olfactory receptors
inverted GCPRs with little sequence similarity between orders. The coreceptor is orco. found on the membrane
gustatory receptors
members of a large G-protein coupled receptor family distantly related to the insect olfactory receptors. no universial coreceptor is known. CO2, sugar, and bitter sensing
ionotropic receptors
ligand gated ion channels that are related to ionotrophic glutamate receptors. involved in olfaction, gustation, salt detection, thermosensation, and hygrosensation. ligands are water soluble amines and acids
odorant binding proteins
found in olfactory and gustatory sensilla and other tissues. they bind small ligands
chemosensory proteins
small soluble proteins which mediate olfactory recognition at the periphery of sensory receptors.
pathway for chemical reception
- odor pass through pores in cuticle of sensilla and are trapped in the epicuticle, then difuse into pores
- enters the receptor lymph and binds to carrier proteins
3 at least 1 odorant -specific receptor is expressed/bipolar neuron - esterases degrade odorant
- sensory neurons run directly to glomeruli of deuterocerebrum
tripod gait
type of gait insect have where 3 legs are always on the ground
metachronal wave gait
slowest type of insect gait. it is seen as a wave of leg movement ripples along each side of a caterpillar
Central pattern generators
the set of interconnected neurons that are responsible for generating the rhythmic motor patterns that animals use in locomotion
what provides input to the central pattern generator
the peripheral sensory neuron feedback from the legs. this information from legs and body feed into the CPG to allow them to adapt to th euneven and rugged terrain
what is the center for intersegmental coordination of sensory information and legs?
the subesophageal ganglion
Attachment organs
claw, soft smooth pads and hairy pad that assist insects in the attachment to substrate
Resilin
a muscle protein with high elasticity which powers the spring of flea leg muscles
Comparative physiology
understanding the general principals to specific adaptations
evolutionary physiology
understanding the selection and spread of general and specific adaptations by phylogenetic analysis
epigenetic mutations
aberrant methylation levels that can lead to unusual gene expression
Ontogeny
the origination and development of an organism, usually from the time of fertilization of the egg to the organisms mature form
aging
age-related changes during the adult stage that often reduce an individuals viability or reproductive capacity
Senescence
age related changes that adversely affect an individuals vitality and functions, and most importantly increase the mortality rate in a population
reactive oxygen species
derived from the metabolism of molecular oxygen. normally exists in all aerobic cells.
photoperiodism
changes in the photoperiod in temperate regions are used by insects to anticipate and coordinate developmental, physiological, and behavioral processes in synchrony with the changing seasons and weather
endogenous timing mechanisms/circadian clocks
a biochemical oscillator that cycles with a stable phase and is synchronized with solar time
circadian rhythms
physical, mental, and behavioral changes that follow a 24-hour cycle. These natural processes respond primarily to light and dark
autonomous pacemaker cells
cells that are found in the optic lobe/brain and drive circadian rhythms. Generates a rhythm within a 24 hr cyclee
Sleep
period of quiescence associated with characteristic rest posture and reduced motor activity.
molt sleep behavior
increased quiescence prior to molting but as responsive to stimuli as feeding larvae
central pacemaker cells
use environmental input pathways signals and are converted to sensory information and transmit to the cells. they generate a self-sustained molecular rhythm through feedback loops
Period gene
found on the X chromosome and shown to be essential for the circadian rhythm of adult eclosion and locomotor activity.
Timeless gene
located on chromosome 2 ad codes for an essential protein that regulates circadian rhythm
Timeless mRNA and protein oscillate rhythmically with time as part of a transcription-translation negative feedback loop involving the period (per) gene and its protein.
missense mutations
a mistake in the DNA which results in the wrong amino acid being incorporated into a protein because of change.
can either shorten or lengthen the period of circadian periodicity
nonsense mutation
the substitution of a single base pair that leads to the appearance of a stop codon where previously there was a codon specifying an amino acid.
causes arhythmicity of circadian periodicity
molecular feedback loop of per and tim
- expression of per/tim genes is promotoed by heterodimeric clock cycle transcription factors and reaches a peak late
- translation of per and tim RA leads to gradual accumulation and dimerization of per and tim proteins within the cytoplasm
- the protein levels peak in the night, during whihc time the enter the nucleus to inhibit further transcriptional activity tim comes off, per is degraded
thermotaxis
behavioral orientation towards or away from external temperature sources
Ectothermy
regulation of body temperature by interacting with the external environment via behavior or generating heat through short-term physiological processes
endothermy
internal source of body temperature
Heterotherm
temperature regulation by internal heat production, but a constant body temperature is not maintained
Poikilotherm
cold-blooded. body temperature dependent on environmental temperatures
Homeotherm
warm blooded. body temperature precisely regulated over a wide range of environmental temperatures
Q10 effect
the speed by which any chemical reaction rate increases or decreases when subjected to a 10 degree C temperature change. Important for insects. the higher the temperature the higher the metabolism.
Degree days
the accumulated product of time and temperature between the developmental thresholds for each day. total amount of heat required, between upper and lower thresholds, for an insect to develop from one point to another in its life cycle is calculated in degree days.
transient receptor potential channel
TRP channel - a group of ion channels located mostly on the plasma membrane of numerous animal cell types. Thermotaxis is regulated through trp channels.
Heat Shock
a cell stress response that increases the number of molecular chaperones to combat the negative effects on proteins caused by stressors such as increased temperatures. the help prevent or reverse protein misfolding and provide an environment for proper folding.
dispersal/dormancy
response to rapid or unpredictable adverse changes in the environment
migration/diapause
temperate to subtropical regions are response to predictable, long-term and adverse changes in the environment
phoresy
an association between two organisms in which one (e.g. a mite) travels on the body of another, without being a parasite.
Phase polypheniesm
body color could be influenced by several factors including temperature, population density, etc.
3 types of migrations that occur
- short-lived adults migrate and die within a season
- short-lived adults migrate from breeding site to feeding site and then females return
- long-lived adults migrate to hibernation sites and return to breeding sites
Cryptobiosis
a physiological state in which metabolic activity is reduced to an undetectable level without disappearing altogether. Ex: Chironomids drying out
Anhydrobiosis
Anhydrobiosis. Ability of certain organisms to lose virtually all water from their bodies under certain conditions, yet remain viable when subsequently rehydrated
Diapause
a genetically programmed, endocrine-mediated state of metabolic and developmental arrest in response to changes in photoperiod and temperature perceived before diapause begins.
Obligatory diapause
insects enter this state during every generation in spite
facultative diapause
insects can go for several generations per season before entering diapause.
program induction
changes in photoperiod temperature, and food supplies may or may not be immediately adverse, but such changes indicate an imminent onset of adverse conditions
supercooling
a method of freeze avoidance, cooling the body fluid to a liquid state below the equilibrium freezing point. typically below the lowest winter temperatures
anti-freeze proteins
produced by the fat body. they lower the supercooling point without affecting the equilibrium freezing point, creating a thermal hysteresis.
Gylcerol
predominant hemolymph cryoprotectant formed from the breakdown of glycerol in fat body of the overwintering last instar.
Uricolytic pathway
nucleic acid digestion is broken down into uric acid and ultimately ammonia. lower cost than the uricotelic pathway
aquaporin
integral membrane proteins that serve as channels in the transfer of water, and in some cases, small solutes across the membrane. found in malpighian tubules
cryptonephridial system
found in tenebrio beetles in the hindgut. it pulls water from the atmosphere
Extrusible organs
found in male moths, they can be erect hairs, sacs, hair pencils etc. and they disseminate pheromones to seduce females
Gonochoristic individual
sexual system where there are only two sexes and each individual organism is either male or female.
Ganglia
main structure of the CNS. 3 main ganglia in the head (protocerebrum, deutocerebrum, and tritocerebrum) and contain blood-brain barrier, neurons, glial cells, and neuropils
action potential
an electric pulse that travels from the neuron cell body down the axon until it reaches the synapse, where it releases neurotransmitters
membrane bound opsin
made of a G-protein coupled receptor and a rhodopsin. Converts light energy into electrical energy
Phototransduction signal cascade
one photon converts rhodopsin to metarhodopsin and a second converts metarhodopsin to rhopsin
Transient receptor potential channel (TRP)
ion channels occurring in cell membranes that are involved in various types of sensory reception, including thermoreception, chemoreception, mechanoreception, and photoreception. Allows sodium and calcium to enter the channel. . These graded voltage responses propagate to photoreceptor synapses with second-order retinal neurons and further to the brain.
metabolic resistance
most common mechanism where insects are able to detoxify or destroy the toxin, or prevent the toxins from reaching target sites by its binding to proteins.
altered target site resistance
the result of selection for enzyme genes or binding proteins in which the toxin binding site is modified to better degrade the insecticide or less its effects
penetration resistance
occurs when the exoskeleton becomes less absorptive. t
behavioral resistance
results from the insects ability to detect the toxin and avoids it by changing activity. insects either stop feeding or move to the underside of a sprayed leaf.
