Task 3 - Problem Solving Flashcards

1
Q

Focused Thinking

A

Begins with clear starting point and has specific goal

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2
Q

Unfocused Thinkiing

A

Like daydreaming, unintentionally calling to mind a number of different and loosely related ideas

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3
Q

Well-defined problems

A
  • have a clear goal (you now when you solved one)
  • present small set of information to start
  • often present set of rules or guidelines
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4
Q

Ill-defined problems

A

-don’t have goals, starting information or spelled-out steps

performance not correlated with that on well-defined problems

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5
Q

Knowledge-rich problem

A

relevant background knowledge needed to solve the problem

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6
Q

Knowledge lean problem

A

do not demand much prior knowledge

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7
Q

Convergent Thinking/Problem

A

Has a corret answer, does not require much creativity

e.g. multiple choice items

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8
Q

Divergent Thinking/Problem

A

Has multiple answers

e.g. open-ended exam items

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9
Q

Control processes

A

required for problem solving

-> does not happen subconsciously

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10
Q

Problem-solving heuristics

A
  • Generate-and-Test-Technique
  • Means-Ends Analysis
  • Working Backward
  • Backtracking
  • Reasoning by Analogy
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11
Q

Generate and Test Technique

A

generating possible solutions and then testing them

  • > loses efficiency when there are many possibilities and without guidance for generation process (e.g. trying combinations for lock-pin)
  • useful when amount of possibilities limited
  • progress-monitoring: changing approach when it doesn’t work
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12
Q

Means-Ends Analysis

A

Comparing goal with starting-point, then thinking of possible ways of overcoming the difference and choosing the best one

  • > options might have preconditions (of not met -> establish subgoals to break down the task)
  • > can be difficult when path to goal is indirect (Hill-climbing effect)
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13
Q

Hill-climbing effet

A

Issue whith a problem where you have to desire to go forward and pick up where you left off even though you have to take a step back first to be able to advance later

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14
Q

Working Backward

A

Goal is analyzed to determine last step needed to achieve it, then next-to-last step etc.

  • > establishing subgoals (similarly to means-ends just other way around)
  • > most effective when path to goal is unique (more efficient than going forward)
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15
Q

Backtracking

A

Problem-solving sometimes involves making universal provisional assumptions which turn out to be wrong and need to be eliminated

  • > useful to keep track when which assumption was made so certain paths can be backed up
  • > often done by setting up a flow chart to keep track of choices
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16
Q

Reasoning by Analogy

A

Using an abstract schema to construct a representation of the scenario to solve the problem
-> e.g. tumor problem

17
Q

Factors hindering problem-solving

A
  • Mental Set
  • Functional Fixedness
  • Using incomplete or incorrect represenations
  • Lack of problem-specific knowledge or expertise
18
Q

Mental Set

A

Tendency to adopt a framework, strategy, procedure, or seeing things in a certain way instead of other equally plausible ways

19
Q

Functional Fixedness

A

Unwillingness to think of other functions for a tool than what they are usually thought for when problem-solving

20
Q

Problem Space Hypothesis

A

Behind every possible state or possibility within a problem there is a a corresponding node in a mental graph
Problem space: set of nodes (mental area) + graph
Mental moves: sequence of nodes

21
Q

Creativity

A

Originality that serves some purpose:
combination or recombination of knowledge, informatino, or mental representations (already present in creator)
-> change in frame of reference in knowledge

22
Q

Direct remembering

A

Ability to channel your memory in order to make conscious some past experience or knowledge meeting various constraints

23
Q

Noticing

A

Revising drafts during which one needs to notice where the problems are

24
Q

Contrary Recognition

A

Ability to recognize objects not for what they are but as sth. else (e.g. seeing a cloud as a castle)
-> requires moving beyond bounds of reality

25
Critical Thinking
Evaluating and assessing novel ideas in terms of their appropriateness -> good critical thinking requires large knowledge bases and some means of using them right
26
Gestalt Approach to Problem Solving
Focus on restructuring the problem in your mind to generate insight
27
Insight
Sudden realization of the solution to a problem
28
Representational Change Theory
Improvement of Gestalt approach -> combines Gestalt approach with information processing Steps: 1. constraint relaxation: removing mental blockades 2. Re-encoding: rethinking problem representation 3. Elaboration: adding new information to the problem
29
Brain parts involved in problem-solving
- not attributed to specific brain part - prefrontal cortex areas - tendency to right hemisphere
30
Three ways to gain insight
Contradiction: leads to curiosity -> insight due to interest Connections: getting out of comfort zone to gain new perspectives/experiences Creative Desperation: coming up with new ideas due to pressure
31
Design Thinking
Structured methodology for generating innovation Steps: 1. Developing Understanding of Needs 2. Ideation: explore possible solutions 3. Refine concepts: prototyping and testing
32
Tendency to fill in blanks
drawing conclusions ealry instead of waiting for direct observation (due to top-down processing) solution: gathering data objectively
33
Encoding Failures
When seemingly unimportant details are not captured
34
Confirmation Bias
Tendency of confirming preexisting hypotheses and dismissing data contradicting those beliefs
35
Fixation
Inability to see problem from fresh perspective (funcitonal fixedness)
36
Fundamental Attribution Error
Tendency to rationalize own failures as being due to external circumstances and vice versa
37
Sunk Cost Fallac
Not moving on from idea because a lot of resources have been put into the current approach