Task 3 - Problem Solving

Question 1

Focused Thinking

Answer 1

Begins with clear starting point and has specific goal

Question 2

Unfocused Thinkiing

Answer 2

Like daydreaming, unintentionally calling to mind a number of different and loosely related ideas

Question 3

Well-defined problems

Answer 3

• have a clear goal (you now when you solved one)
• present small set of information to start
• often present set of rules or guidelines

Question 4

Ill-defined problems

Answer 4

-don’t have goals, starting information or spelled-out steps

performance not correlated with that on well-defined problems

Question 5

Knowledge-rich problem

Answer 5

relevant background knowledge needed to solve the problem

Question 6

Knowledge lean problem

Answer 6

do not demand much prior knowledge

Question 7

Convergent Thinking/Problem

Answer 7

Has a corret answer, does not require much creativity

e.g. multiple choice items

Question 8

Divergent Thinking/Problem

Answer 8

Has multiple answers

e.g. open-ended exam items

Question 9

Control processes

Answer 9

required for problem solving

-> does not happen subconsciously

Question 10

Problem-solving heuristics

Answer 10

• Generate-and-Test-Technique
• Means-Ends Analysis
• Working Backward
• Backtracking
• Reasoning by Analogy

Question 11

Generate and Test Technique

Answer 11

generating possible solutions and then testing them

• > loses efficiency when there are many possibilities and without guidance for generation process (e.g. trying combinations for lock-pin)
• useful when amount of possibilities limited
• progress-monitoring: changing approach when it doesn’t work

Question 12

Means-Ends Analysis

Answer 12

Comparing goal with starting-point, then thinking of possible ways of overcoming the difference and choosing the best one

• > options might have preconditions (of not met -> establish subgoals to break down the task)
• > can be difficult when path to goal is indirect (Hill-climbing effect)

Question 13

Hill-climbing effet

Answer 13

Issue whith a problem where you have to desire to go forward and pick up where you left off even though you have to take a step back first to be able to advance later

Question 14

Working Backward

Answer 14

Goal is analyzed to determine last step needed to achieve it, then next-to-last step etc.

• > establishing subgoals (similarly to means-ends just other way around)
• > most effective when path to goal is unique (more efficient than going forward)

Question 15

Backtracking

Answer 15

Problem-solving sometimes involves making universal provisional assumptions which turn out to be wrong and need to be eliminated

• > useful to keep track when which assumption was made so certain paths can be backed up
• > often done by setting up a flow chart to keep track of choices

Question 16

Reasoning by Analogy

Answer 16

Using an abstract schema to construct a representation of the scenario to solve the problem
-> e.g. tumor problem

Question 17

Factors hindering problem-solving

Answer 17

• Mental Set
• Functional Fixedness
• Using incomplete or incorrect represenations
• Lack of problem-specific knowledge or expertise

Question 18

Mental Set

Answer 18

Tendency to adopt a framework, strategy, procedure, or seeing things in a certain way instead of other equally plausible ways

Question 19

Functional Fixedness

Answer 19

Unwillingness to think of other functions for a tool than what they are usually thought for when problem-solving

Question 20

Problem Space Hypothesis

Answer 20

Behind every possible state or possibility within a problem there is a a corresponding node in a mental graph
Problem space: set of nodes (mental area) + graph
Mental moves: sequence of nodes

Question 21

Creativity

Answer 21

Originality that serves some purpose:
combination or recombination of knowledge, informatino, or mental representations (already present in creator)
-> change in frame of reference in knowledge

Question 22

Direct remembering

Answer 22

Ability to channel your memory in order to make conscious some past experience or knowledge meeting various constraints

Question 23

Noticing

Answer 23

Revising drafts during which one needs to notice where the problems are

Question 24

Contrary Recognition

Answer 24

Ability to recognize objects not for what they are but as sth. else (e.g. seeing a cloud as a castle)
-> requires moving beyond bounds of reality

Question 25

Critical Thinking

Answer 25

Evaluating and assessing novel ideas in terms of their appropriateness
-> good critical thinking requires large knowledge bases and some means of using them right

Question 26

Gestalt Approach to Problem Solving

Answer 26

Focus on restructuring the problem in your mind to generate insight

Question 27

Insight

Answer 27

Sudden realization of the solution to a problem

Question 28

Representational Change Theory

Answer 28

Improvement of Gestalt approach
-> combines Gestalt approach with information processing
Steps:
1. constraint relaxation: removing mental blockades
2. Re-encoding: rethinking problem representation
3. Elaboration: adding new information to the problem

Question 29

Brain parts involved in problem-solving

Answer 29

• not attributed to specific brain part
• prefrontal cortex areas
• tendency to right hemisphere

Question 30

Three ways to gain insight

Answer 30

Contradiction: leads to curiosity -> insight due to interest
Connections: getting out of comfort zone to gain new perspectives/experiences
Creative Desperation: coming up with new ideas due to pressure

Question 31

Design Thinking

Answer 31

Structured methodology for generating innovation
Steps:
1. Developing Understanding of Needs
2. Ideation: explore possible solutions
3. Refine concepts: prototyping and testing

Question 32

Tendency to fill in blanks

Answer 32

drawing conclusions ealry instead of waiting for direct observation
(due to top-down processing)
solution: gathering data objectively

Question 33

Encoding Failures

Answer 33

When seemingly unimportant details are not captured

Question 34

Confirmation Bias

Answer 34

Tendency of confirming preexisting hypotheses and dismissing data contradicting those beliefs

Question 35

Fixation

Answer 35

Inability to see problem from fresh perspective (funcitonal fixedness)

Question 36

Fundamental Attribution Error

Answer 36

Tendency to rationalize own failures as being due to external circumstances and vice versa

Question 37

Sunk Cost Fallac

Answer 37

Not moving on from idea because a lot of resources have been put into the current approach