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Thomas Kuhn (1963)
The Structure of Scientific Solutions
The Context of Discovery (subjective)
refers to the actual historical process by which a scientist arrives at a given theory
The Context of Justification (objective)
refers to the means by which the scientist tries to justify the theory once they already have it (incl. testing the theory, searching for relevant evidence and comparing it with rival theories)
Central to Kuhn’s account of Normal Science is the concept of a Paradigm
a Paradigm consists of 2 components:
1) a set of fundamental theoretical assumptions, which all members of a scientific community accept
2) a set of exemplars or particular scientific problems which have been solved by means of those theoretical assumptions and which appear in the textbooks of that discipline
A Paradigm is more than a theory
when scientist share a paradigm, they do not just agree on certain scientific propositions. they agree also on how future research in their field should proceed, on which problems are the pertinent ones to tackle, on what the appropriate methods for solving those problems are and on what an acceptable solution of the problems would look like
Paradigm
an entire scientific outlook - a constellation of shared assumptions, beliefs and values, which unite a scientific community and allow Normal Science to take place
Kuhn: the job of the Normal Scientist is to try to eliminate these minor puzzles while making as few changes as possible to the paradigm
“normal science does not aim at novelties of fact or theory, and when successful, finds none”
Anomalies
phenomena which simply cannot be reconciled with the paradigm
the essence of a scientific revolution
is the shift from an old paradigm to a new one
Incommensurability
is the idea that two paradigms may be so different as to render impossible any straightforward comparison of them with eachother (there is no common language into which both can be translated)
Holism
concepts cannot be explained independently of the theories in which they are embedded
Kritiek op Kuhn
claimed old and new paradigms to be incompatible, however if two things are incommensurable, then they cannot be incompatible, if the proposition (einstein vs newtons mass/velocity) has the SAME meaning in 2 theories, then there is a genuine conflict between the 2
Incommensurability of Standards
the idea that proponents of different paradigms may disagree about what features a good paradigm should have, what problems it should be able to solve and what an acceptable solution to those problems would look like.
“each paradigm will be shown to satisfy the criteria that it dictates for itself and to fall short of a few of those dictated by its opponent”
Theory-Ladenness of Data
(theory-neutrality is an illusion)
data are invariably contaminated by theoretical assumptions. It is impossible to isolate a set of “pure” data which all scientists would accept irrespective of their theoretical persuasion
2 important consequences:
1) a dispute between competing paradigms could not be resolved by simply appealing to “the data” or “facts” (for what a scientist counts as data/facts will depend on the paradigm they accept)
* perfectly objective choice between 2 paradigms is impossible, there is no neutral vantage-point from which to assess the claims of each
2) the very idea of truth is called into question. To be objectively true, a theory must correspond to the facts, but the idea of such a correspondence makes little sense if the facts themselves are infected by our theories.
Strong Programme
was based around the idea that science should be viewed as a product of the society in which it practised.
Social Constructivism
the idea that certain phenomena, e.g. racial categories, are “social constructs”, as opposed to having an objective mind-independent existence