Studies Flashcards
Le Bon
Group mind, when in a group there is anonymity, contagion and suggestibility.
Zimbardo
The deindividualisation model; doesn’t agree with group mind. A crowd has reduced self awareness and less accountability, causing their output variables to be impulsive and irrational
Postmes
Meta analytic review that doesn’t support the deinvidividualisation model. Anti-normative behaviour occurs in situation-specific scenarios, not when one is deindividualised.
Reicher - deindividualisation
Supported some aspects of deindividualisation. If there is increased visibility of subjects in the group when completing punishable behaviours, then conformity reduces, supporting the theory. However, conformity increases when there is more visibility for non-punishable behaviours.
Mann
Deindividualisation occurs; when groups of participants were anonymous, they administered louder noises to the people they were observing.
Reicher- SIT
The battle of Westminster can be explained by social identity. Individuals developed a social identity of either being a student or being in the police and acted aggressively because of this.
Elliot
Her study about segregating blue eyes and borwn eyes can be applied to SIT. As the children were put in groups, they began discriminating the other group almost immediately.
Billig
SIT. When the participants were segregated into groups, they began discriminating anyone in the outgroup. If the identity of the group is never fully introduced, there is a lot less discrimination.
Walker
Intergroup conflict; African american soldiers positioned in the south of the USA were much happier than those in the North because the local african americans in the south were in a worse position. Therefore this shows evidence for relative deprivation.
Runciman
Two types of relative deprivation. Egoistic (personal) and fraternalistic (the group you’re in).
Sherif
Realistic conflict theory; Different groups compete over scarce resources.
Bem
Your attitudes are caused by observing other people’s behaviour, this is the self perception theory
Strack
Facial feedback and emotion; holding a pen between their teeth/lips affected their ratings of enjoyment when watching a video.
Zuckerman
Facial feedback hypothesis; when participants were told to exaggerate their expressions when watching a video, there was more autonomic activity in terms of heart rate/skin conductance.
Tomkins
Tomkins found that your face doesn’t only express your affect to others but it also expresses it to yourself, supporting the facial feedback hypothesis. Emotions can affect your attitudes.
Zajonc
Facial feedback; higher positive moods when saying ‘ah’ as opposed to ‘u’ due to the expression you pull when pronouncing the vowels.
Lepper
Intrinsic motivation; When a child expected a reward for playing with their favourite toy, their extrinsic motivation reduced and they no longer wanted to play with it. This is the overjustification effect. Their attitude towards the toy changed.
Broverman
Nurses described males and females via a questionnaire. There were no gender differences in their viewpoints but most agreed that men are more independent and women are more talkative.
Basow
Basow argued that gender stereotypes don’t cause a distinction between the sexes but the gender roles expected of each do.
Heilman
They conducted research and found that competence won’t always allow a woman to progress in a job, it also depends on what they perceive women to be like and how they believe women should behave. This is evidence for men perceiving women negatively.
O’Doherty
They reviewed Australian media reports about asylum seekers and found that the media uses terms to encourage beliefs/stereotypes and increase the marginalisation by using words like ‘boat people’.
Park
Supported the outgroup homogeneity effect; sororities judged the similarity of members in their own group and of members in other sororities and found that they believe there were more differences between the in groups members compared to the out group members.
Vrij
Supported the social identity theory; people read newspapers of white/black people committing crimes and were then asked how what percentage of the reports were about black people. There was a very large overestimation about black people and theft, due to stereotypes and perceiving the outgroup negatively.
Pettigrew
People explain away positive behaviours of out group members and blame it on luck or manipulation or it being an exceptional case. This is the ultimate attribution error.
Hewstone
They found support for the ultimate attribution error and found that attributions favour in group members compare to outgroup members.
Klayman
Stereotypes can form because of confirmation bias. However, klayman claims that there are many types of this, for example, searching for evidence to confirm your beliefs or interpreting evidence to support your beliefs or being overconfident and therefore ignoring contradictory evidence.
Stone et al.
Also supported stereotypes forming from confirmation bias. They found that people thought a basketball player was better if they were told he was black, when listening to a game.
Jussim
Self fulfilling prophecies; they occur among students in terms of stigmatised social groups but don’t occur with teachers that much.
Von Bayer
When women were told that their interviewer held stereotypical female views, the woman would speak less and make less eye contact due to negative opinion before hand. Therefore, any behaviour he then committed would ‘support’ their views.
Asch
When in a group, individuals will answer incorrectly if everyone else does unanimously, this is normative majority influence. If they aren’t unanimous, this effect won’t occur.
Moscovici
They found evidence for minority influence; if the confederates (now a minority) were consistently incorrect then the participants (the majority) would answer more often, but this is still a significantly less effect than majority influence.
Nemeth
Minority influence; if confederates had a pattern of being incorrect, then there was significantly more incorrect answer said by the participants compared to the random incorrect condition.
There was also a follow up study that found that people are more influenced by majority rather than minority influence but when there is a minority influence, you are more likely to find solutions that you wouldn’t have found on your own.
Milgram
Obedience study
Brown
Conducted an experiment on TV following obedience. 75% of participants conformed and ended up pushing someone off a building to kill them.
Sheridan
Replicated Milgram’s study but with puppies receiving shocks and found similar findings of obedience.
Hofling
Asked nurses whether they would give an overdose if a doctor told them to. All of them said no, however, when a doctor actually told them to, almost all of them would hav done it as they were being obedient.
Latane
Explain obedience; it depends on the strength of the source, the immediacy, the resistance to social pressures and the number of people in the situation. This is the social impact theory.
Sussman
People’s attitudes can change depending on context. If people were told that helping poor people would imply a tax raise then they were less willing to help.
LaPierre
When restaurants were asked whether they would let a chinese couple into their establishment, almost all said no but when they went to restaurants, only one turned them away. This shows the difference between attitudes and behaviour.
Corey
They found that student’s attitudes towards cheating had no relationship between their actual behaviour of cheating. It was found that both students against and for cheating would cheat if the situation came across.
Grob
They found a correlation between attitudes and behaviour unlike previous research. If people have positive, personal attitudes towards the environment then they are more likely to do something about it, however, people provided with factual knowledge about the environment did not change their behaviour towards the environment. Therefore, environmental behaviour depends on the attitudes you naturally have.
Prislin
This researched the theory of planned behaviour. Low self monitors’ intentions and overt behaviour can be predicted by looking at their attitudes but high self monitors’ intentions can be predicted by looking at subjective norms.
Snyder
High self monitors have a low attitude and behaviour correlation, unlike low self monitors whose attitudes are similar to their public behaviour.
Azjen
Created a model for the theory of planned behaviour. Behaviour can be predicted by looking at intentions which are formed by attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control.
Azjen also looked at models of persuasion. Attitudinal change is mostly affected by the person’s individual beliefs as opposed to normative views when competition is involved. However, if cooperation is involved then normative views are more likely to cause attitudinal change.
Petty
Created the dual process model of persuasion and said there are two methods. The central route (the content of the message) and the peripheral route (the whole package). The effectiveness of both of these depend on a credible/likeable source, the length of the message (longer for lazy audiences, valid points for active audiences) and the audience (low self monitors - central route, high self monitors - peripheral route).
Kok
You can change one’s behaviour by giving attention, understanding, changing their attitudes and changing social norms.
Festinger
They found that attitude change can be caused by cognitive dissonance. This is when you tell the participants to lie, them lying psychologically arouses them as they will feel guilty and responsible, as a result it will lead them to agree with the lie more, e.g. not find the task as boring. This isn’t found if there is a high reward for lying as it won’t psychologically arouse them as much.
Kyes
Fearful messages about STDs didn’t cause behavioural change but they did cause changes in one’s intentions.
Marthur
People are more persuaded by a TV advert if it’s during an upbeat program.
Maheswaran
Messages that are positively framed require less detail in order to be persuasive. Also positively framed messages, explaining the benefits of a product are more persuasive than a negatively framed message.
Miller
He found that subtle messages about littering in a classroom more more effective than imperatives in the message.
