Studies

Question 1

Le Bon

Answer 1

Group mind, when in a group there is anonymity, contagion and suggestibility.

Question 2

Zimbardo

Answer 2

The deindividualisation model; doesn’t agree with group mind. A crowd has reduced self awareness and less accountability, causing their output variables to be impulsive and irrational

Question 3

Postmes

Answer 3

Meta analytic review that doesn’t support the deinvidividualisation model. Anti-normative behaviour occurs in situation-specific scenarios, not when one is deindividualised.

Question 4

Reicher - deindividualisation

Answer 4

Supported some aspects of deindividualisation. If there is increased visibility of subjects in the group when completing punishable behaviours, then conformity reduces, supporting the theory. However, conformity increases when there is more visibility for non-punishable behaviours.

Question 5

Mann

Answer 5

Deindividualisation occurs; when groups of participants were anonymous, they administered louder noises to the people they were observing.

Question 6

Reicher- SIT

Answer 6

The battle of Westminster can be explained by social identity. Individuals developed a social identity of either being a student or being in the police and acted aggressively because of this.

Question 7

Elliot

Answer 7

Her study about segregating blue eyes and borwn eyes can be applied to SIT. As the children were put in groups, they began discriminating the other group almost immediately.

Question 8

Billig

Answer 8

SIT. When the participants were segregated into groups, they began discriminating anyone in the outgroup. If the identity of the group is never fully introduced, there is a lot less discrimination.

Question 9

Walker

Answer 9

Intergroup conflict; African american soldiers positioned in the south of the USA were much happier than those in the North because the local african americans in the south were in a worse position. Therefore this shows evidence for relative deprivation.

Question 10

Runciman

Answer 10

Two types of relative deprivation. Egoistic (personal) and fraternalistic (the group you’re in).

Question 11

Sherif

Answer 11

Realistic conflict theory; Different groups compete over scarce resources.

Question 12

Bem

Answer 12

Your attitudes are caused by observing other people’s behaviour, this is the self perception theory

Question 13

Strack

Answer 13

Facial feedback and emotion; holding a pen between their teeth/lips affected their ratings of enjoyment when watching a video.

Question 14

Zuckerman

Answer 14

Facial feedback hypothesis; when participants were told to exaggerate their expressions when watching a video, there was more autonomic activity in terms of heart rate/skin conductance.

Question 15

Tomkins

Answer 15

Tomkins found that your face doesn’t only express your affect to others but it also expresses it to yourself, supporting the facial feedback hypothesis. Emotions can affect your attitudes.

Question 16

Zajonc

Answer 16

Facial feedback; higher positive moods when saying ‘ah’ as opposed to ‘u’ due to the expression you pull when pronouncing the vowels.

Question 17

Lepper

Answer 17

Intrinsic motivation; When a child expected a reward for playing with their favourite toy, their extrinsic motivation reduced and they no longer wanted to play with it. This is the overjustification effect. Their attitude towards the toy changed.

Question 18

Broverman

Answer 18

Nurses described males and females via a questionnaire. There were no gender differences in their viewpoints but most agreed that men are more independent and women are more talkative.

Question 19

Basow

Answer 19

Basow argued that gender stereotypes don’t cause a distinction between the sexes but the gender roles expected of each do.

Question 20

Heilman

Answer 20

They conducted research and found that competence won’t always allow a woman to progress in a job, it also depends on what they perceive women to be like and how they believe women should behave. This is evidence for men perceiving women negatively.

Question 21

O’Doherty

Answer 21

They reviewed Australian media reports about asylum seekers and found that the media uses terms to encourage beliefs/stereotypes and increase the marginalisation by using words like ‘boat people’.

Question 22

Park

Answer 22

Supported the outgroup homogeneity effect; sororities judged the similarity of members in their own group and of members in other sororities and found that they believe there were more differences between the in groups members compared to the out group members.

Question 23

Vrij

Answer 23

Supported the social identity theory; people read newspapers of white/black people committing crimes and were then asked how what percentage of the reports were about black people. There was a very large overestimation about black people and theft, due to stereotypes and perceiving the outgroup negatively.

Question 24

Pettigrew

Answer 24

People explain away positive behaviours of out group members and blame it on luck or manipulation or it being an exceptional case. This is the ultimate attribution error.

Question 25

Hewstone

Answer 25

They found support for the ultimate attribution error and found that attributions favour in group members compare to outgroup members.

Question 26

Klayman

Answer 26

Stereotypes can form because of confirmation bias. However, klayman claims that there are many types of this, for example, searching for evidence to confirm your beliefs or interpreting evidence to support your beliefs or being overconfident and therefore ignoring contradictory evidence.

Question 27

Stone et al.

Answer 27

Also supported stereotypes forming from confirmation bias. They found that people thought a basketball player was better if they were told he was black, when listening to a game.

Question 28

Jussim

Answer 28

Self fulfilling prophecies; they occur among students in terms of stigmatised social groups but don’t occur with teachers that much.

Question 29

Von Bayer

Answer 29

When women were told that their interviewer held stereotypical female views, the woman would speak less and make less eye contact due to negative opinion before hand. Therefore, any behaviour he then committed would ‘support’ their views.

Question 30

Asch

Answer 30

When in a group, individuals will answer incorrectly if everyone else does unanimously, this is normative majority influence. If they aren’t unanimous, this effect won’t occur.

Question 31

Moscovici

Answer 31

They found evidence for minority influence; if the confederates (now a minority) were consistently incorrect then the participants (the majority) would answer more often, but this is still a significantly less effect than majority influence.

Question 32

Nemeth

Answer 32

Minority influence; if confederates had a pattern of being incorrect, then there was significantly more incorrect answer said by the participants compared to the random incorrect condition.
There was also a follow up study that found that people are more influenced by majority rather than minority influence but when there is a minority influence, you are more likely to find solutions that you wouldn’t have found on your own.

Question 33

Milgram

Answer 33

Obedience study

Question 34

Brown

Answer 34

Conducted an experiment on TV following obedience. 75% of participants conformed and ended up pushing someone off a building to kill them.

Question 35

Sheridan

Answer 35

Replicated Milgram’s study but with puppies receiving shocks and found similar findings of obedience.

Question 36

Hofling

Answer 36

Asked nurses whether they would give an overdose if a doctor told them to. All of them said no, however, when a doctor actually told them to, almost all of them would hav done it as they were being obedient.

Question 37

Latane

Answer 37

Explain obedience; it depends on the strength of the source, the immediacy, the resistance to social pressures and the number of people in the situation. This is the social impact theory.

Question 38

Sussman

Answer 38

People’s attitudes can change depending on context. If people were told that helping poor people would imply a tax raise then they were less willing to help.

Question 39

LaPierre

Answer 39

When restaurants were asked whether they would let a chinese couple into their establishment, almost all said no but when they went to restaurants, only one turned them away. This shows the difference between attitudes and behaviour.

Question 40

Corey

Answer 40

They found that student’s attitudes towards cheating had no relationship between their actual behaviour of cheating. It was found that both students against and for cheating would cheat if the situation came across.

Question 41

Grob

Answer 41

They found a correlation between attitudes and behaviour unlike previous research. If people have positive, personal attitudes towards the environment then they are more likely to do something about it, however, people provided with factual knowledge about the environment did not change their behaviour towards the environment. Therefore, environmental behaviour depends on the attitudes you naturally have.

Question 42

Prislin

Answer 42

This researched the theory of planned behaviour. Low self monitors’ intentions and overt behaviour can be predicted by looking at their attitudes but high self monitors’ intentions can be predicted by looking at subjective norms.

Question 43

Snyder

Answer 43

High self monitors have a low attitude and behaviour correlation, unlike low self monitors whose attitudes are similar to their public behaviour.

Question 44

Azjen

Answer 44

Created a model for the theory of planned behaviour. Behaviour can be predicted by looking at intentions which are formed by attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control.
Azjen also looked at models of persuasion. Attitudinal change is mostly affected by the person’s individual beliefs as opposed to normative views when competition is involved. However, if cooperation is involved then normative views are more likely to cause attitudinal change.

Question 45

Petty

Answer 45

Created the dual process model of persuasion and said there are two methods. The central route (the content of the message) and the peripheral route (the whole package). The effectiveness of both of these depend on a credible/likeable source, the length of the message (longer for lazy audiences, valid points for active audiences) and the audience (low self monitors - central route, high self monitors - peripheral route).

Question 46

Kok

Answer 46

You can change one’s behaviour by giving attention, understanding, changing their attitudes and changing social norms.

Question 47

Festinger

Answer 47

They found that attitude change can be caused by cognitive dissonance. This is when you tell the participants to lie, them lying psychologically arouses them as they will feel guilty and responsible, as a result it will lead them to agree with the lie more, e.g. not find the task as boring. This isn’t found if there is a high reward for lying as it won’t psychologically arouse them as much.

Question 48

Kyes

Answer 48

Fearful messages about STDs didn’t cause behavioural change but they did cause changes in one’s intentions.

Question 49

Marthur

Answer 49

People are more persuaded by a TV advert if it’s during an upbeat program.

Question 50

Maheswaran

Answer 50

Messages that are positively framed require less detail in order to be persuasive. Also positively framed messages, explaining the benefits of a product are more persuasive than a negatively framed message.

Question 51

Miller

Answer 51

He found that subtle messages about littering in a classroom more more effective than imperatives in the message.