Lecture 16 Flashcards
Briefly discuss Heider et al.’s study about intentions
The participants watched a short video of three shapes moving around on a screen. They were then asked to describe what they saw, all of the participants read a story into it and believed the shapes to have intentions. For example, one shape intended to defend another.
When do the understanding of intentions develop?
In the 1980s, it was believed that children cannot separate actions from intentions until they were 4 years old. Therefore, they are unable to understand the intentions of incomplete actions, for example if someone got out bread, butter and a knife, the child wouldn’t understand what they were intending to do. Meltzoff then explored how child recreate events. So the mother would try but fail to complete an action and the child then repeated it. However, it was observed whether they repeated the action or repeated what the action intended to do. The child would repeat what the mother intended to do when they are just 18 months old, some findings have found this in babies who are 15 months. Children of 18 months are also able identify other people’s needs and will then help the other to complete the intentional act. They can also distinguish between intentions and accidents, for example they repeated accidents far less. They also imitate actions that appear to be odd, if they seem intentional. Therefore, this shows that infants, from an extremely young age, understand goals but also the rationality behind them.
Discuss rational imitation in infants
Infants have been shown to only imitate an adult’s behaviour if it’s rational. For example, in one study, the adult would sit at a table turn on a light with their head, they either had their hands free or constrained. A week later, the children were brought back, those who observed the hands free condition turned on the light with their head. This is because the adult was able to turn it on with their hands but they used their head, so it therefore must be the correct way to do it. Another study showed similar findings. The adult would put a toy dog into the playhouse via the chimney. The infants would only imitate the behaviour if the adult did it with the playhouse door open, as opposed to locked. This is like the other study, the child imitated it because the parent clearly intended to do it. These all support the idea of the rationality principle; people working towards their goals.
The studies mentioned above also demonstrate that there is more dis-habituation towards possible but irrational goals compared to impossible but rational goals.
Discuss a study about dynamic actions in relation to intentions
If you show 10 month old infants a video with a series of sequences, each attending towards a goal and then show them different versions of the video with pauses at completion points, then the infants become more sensitive to the structure of the action.
Describe Hamlim’s study about infants and intentions
The did a study where an adult played with a toy, in one condition the adult was goal oriented and in the other, they were goal ambiguous. The children imitated the behaviour of the goal directed adult, even if they didn’t achieve their goal. They chose the toy the adults intended to get.
What did Reddy’s study find about anticipating actions?
Reddy et al. found that infants (from 6 months of age) show anticipatory gazes towards an adult reaching forward to grasp an object with an open hand, this was shown via on-line action. Older groups had higher levels of proactively in their gazes. Additionally, infants from 8 months of age show proactive responses when the adult’s grasp was precise, instead of an open hand. However, the proactivity of their gaze was related with the infants’ own physical ability. So the infant was able to perform this action, then their gaze would be proactive. This study therefore shows how children that are 6 months are able to anticipate the actions of others.
Discuss infants being picked up, how should they typically respond?
Kanner found that children with autism (atypical development) do not make anticipatory postural adjustments when a parent goes to pick them up, which contrasts against typical development. By 12 months of age, when infants understand that their parent intends to pick them up, they lift up their arms to aid the process. Reddy tested for this, the parent was instructed to chat, approach and then contact. The timing if the infants response was recorded. It was found that at 3 months of age, infants would extend their legs, raise their arms and raise their head. In the chat phase, the duration of the child’s adjustments was short but this increased once the mother approached and made contact. Also, from phase to phase, the child’s thrashing and general movements decreased. Children’s compliance with others’ intentions also increases with age.
List some examples of 9 month infants teasing others
9 months olds have been shown to offer and then withdraw an object, obstruct actions, hide objects and withdraw themselves in a playful manner.
What are the five methods we use to learn and understand intentions?
Perceiving actions Experiencing actions directed to self Inferring rationality Engaging with others' actions Increasing our understanding of intentions
